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.pdf
National Institutes of Health (NIH) Osteoporosis and
Related Bone Diseases, National Resource Center.
“Skeletal Effects of Anorexia,” National Institute of
Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases.
Available online. URL: http://www.osteo.org/newfile.
asp?doc=r709i&doctitle=Skeletal+Effects+of+Anorexi
a&doctype=HTML+Fact+Sheet. Downloaded Decem-
ber 29, 2005.
Seidenfield, Marjorie E., M.D., Elyse Sosin, and Vaughn
I. Rickert. “Nutrition and Eating Disorders in Adoles-
cents,” The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 71, no. 3
(May 2004): 155–161.
elderly, spinal concerns of As Baby Boomers
and others reach retirement age, weight-bearing
joints age and boom. Disco gives way to
DEGENERA-
TIVE DISC DISEASE and HERNIATED DISCS. Bones wear.
Backs ache, and spines decline. Undesirable com-
panionships form with
ARTHRITIS, OSTEOARTHRITIS,
OSTEOPOROSIS, SPINAL STENOSIS, and an overall loss
of bone density. People live longer, but at a height
of an inch or so less than in younger days. If perpet-
ual problems with
POSTURE begin to affect balance,
just one false step and a spinal
FRACTURE can lead to
the fall of independence and mobility.
Despite the
CHRONIC PAIN and worries that often
accompany advanced age, the good news is that
most older people have the time and focus to alter
their gloomy prospects. For instance, instead of
hopping on an elevator, a retired person might take
the time to take the stairs. Instead of passing up
daily
ACTIVITY in a neighborhood or religious cen-
ter, a retired person might participate more fully
and actually have fun. Instead of backing four
wheels out of a driveway, a two-wheeler may do.
If knee pain or
BACK problems cause a nosedive in
EXERCISE, swimming can move the body without
undue wear and tear on the joints. For upper body
strength, rowing a fishing boat may reel in a tighter
tummy and tighten
PARASPINAL MUSCLES too.
Risks and Complications
A general lack of energy may indicate the need to
treat an underlying medical condition, dehydration,
SLEEP problem, or inadequate NUTRITION. Accord-
ing to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),
“Older people may not know that their nutrient
requirements can change from their younger years.”
Furthermore, “the process of aging can introduce
other factors—chronic disease, physical disabilities,
poor economic status, social isolation, prescription
medications, and altered mental status—that may
cause poor eating habits that do not meet an older
person’s current nutrient needs.” Therefore, “the
elderly face the challenge of choosing a nutrient
dense diet, one that provides an adequate intake
of nutrients at a time when their activity levels and
energy needs decline.” For instance, dairy foods
high in
CALCIUM, whole grains high in fiber, and
fruits high in
VITAMIN C and other vitamins may be
particularly significant.
Besides dietary concerns, the National Insti-
tute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal Skin Diseases
(NIAMS) pointed out that “among Americans age
65 and older, fall-related injuries are the lead-
ing cause of accidental death.” Often, this occurs
because “aging slows a person’s reaction time and
makes it harder to regain one’s balance follow-
ing a sudden movement or shift of body weight.”
Changes in vision also contribute to missteps, as do
loose rugs, poor lighting, and obstacles in a walk-
way.
Statistics and Studies
According to the American Academy of Orthopae-
dic Surgeons (AAOS), “Many of the changes in our
musculoskeletal system result more from disuse
than from simple aging. Fewer than 10 percent of
Americans participate in regular exercise, and the
most sedentary group is over age 50.”
The National Center for Injury Prevention and
Control offered these statistics: “Older adults are
hospitalized for fall-related injuries five times more
often than they are for injuries from other causes.
Of those who fall, 20% to 30% suffer moderate to
severe injuries that reduce mobility and indepen-
dence, and increase the risk of premature death.”
With hip fractures presenting the biggest problem,
“the most common fall-related injuries are osteo-
porotic fractures . . . of the hip, spine, or forearm.”
A hip or spine-damaging fall that lands a person
in the hospital may also pave the way to a nursing
home. As an article in BMC Geriatrics pointed out,
“Many older adults develop functional decline and
impaired walking while in the hospital. Prevent-
86 elderly, spinal concerns of
ing and treating hospital-related deconditioning
is, therefore, of great importance.” Unfortunately,
“few studies . . . examine the role of exercise in the
hospital.”
An article in The Journal of the American Osteo-
pathic Association said, “People are living longer but
are dying with more disabilities. The fastest grow-
ing segment of the population is those older than
85 years. Frailty and disability increase with age.
Many patients will require assistance with activities
of daily living (ADL) which may necessitate insti-
tutionalization if adequate resources are not avail-
able. . . . Of those who enter nursing homes, it is
estimated that one third will die within 12 months
of admission.”
Special Aids and Adaptations
As suggested by the BMC Geriatrics article, resis-
tance exercises for elderly patients can be adapted
to “(1) allow the subject to exercise from bed . . . ,
(2) provide enough resistance so that muscle
fatigue occurs before 10 repetitions, (3) strengthen
the major muscle groups of the lower extremities,
(4) utilize safe, effective procedures and postures,
and (5) standardize and describe the exercise pro-
gram so that it can be precisely reproduced.”
For patients who have not been confined to a
bed, NIAMS suggested practicing balancing exer-
cises every day. “While holding the back of a chair,
sink, or countertop, practice standing on one leg at
a time for a minute. Gradually increase the time.
Try balancing with your eyes closed. Try balancing
without holding on.”
As the AAOS reminded, “An exercise program
doesn’t have to be strenuous to be effective. Walk-
ing, square dancing, swimming and bicycling are
all recommended activities for maintaining fitness
into old age. The 30 minutes of moderate activity
can be broken up into shorter periods; you might
spend 15 minutes working in the garden in the
morning and 15 minutes walking in the afternoon.
It all adds up.”
To aid ease of movement, well-fitted walking
SHOES with gel insoles help to cushion aging bones
and discs. However, not just any exercise will do.
Each individual has individual needs and circum-
stances. Therefore, a medical evaluation not only
assesses potential risks involved in exercise but helps
a specialist to design a sensible program. An article
in The Journal of Musculoskeletal Medicine explained,
“Mobility testing and determination of which posi-
tions induce pain and which relieve it can help
devise an exercise program and identify the nature
of the underlying pathology.” For example,
RANGE
OF MOTION testing may show less restriction with
one movement than another, thus clarifying the
type of exercise that can be performed for optimal
effect. Regardless of personal limitations, “Older
patients who present with spinal complaints do
not need to accept the aches and pains as a conse-
quence of aging. Many of the spinal problems asso-
ciated with aging can be mollified greatly by finding
and maintaining the right balance of physical activ-
ity and healthful living habits. Judicious use of
exercise, proper body mechanics, medications, and
surgery can result in improvement of function and
quality of life.”
For new retirees and the very elderly,
ENVIRON-
MENTAL INFLUENCES and ERGONOMIC FACTORS can
affect the quality of life either positively or nega-
tively. Beneficial changes can come, however, as a
person acknowledges his or her physical limitations
and sensibly adapts movements in
LIFTING objects,
bending, and finding a manageable pace. For many
people, the quality of life and overall outlook also
improve through regular interaction with nature.
This may mean meandering on a scenic trail, train-
ing a pet, tending garden plants, or cultivating the
ageless company of particularly pleasant people,
including, of course, oneself.
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. “Effects of
Aging,” AAOS. Available online. URL: http://orthoinfo.
aaos.org/fact/thr_report.cfm?Thread_ID=224&topcate
gory=General%20Information. Downloaded Decem-
ber 29, 2005.
Insight 14. “A Focus on Nutrition for the Elderly: It’s Time
to Take a Closer Look,” Nutrition Insights, two-page
brochure, July 1999, a Publication of the USDA Cen-
ter for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
Mallery, Laurie H., Elizabeth A. MacDonald, Cheryl I.
Hubley-Kozey, Marie E. Earl, Kenneth Rockwood,
and Chris MacKnight. “The Feasibility of Performing
Resistance Exercise with Acutely Ill Hospitalized Older
Adults,” BMC Geriatrics 3, no. 3 (October 7, 2003).
elderly, spinal concerns of 87
Marx, Tracy L. “Partnering With Hospice to Improve Pain
Management in the Nursing Home Setting,” JAOA,
The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association 105,
no. 3 (March 2005): 22–26.
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. “A
Tool Kit to Prevent Senior Falls: The Costs of Fall Inju-
ries Among Older Adults,” Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention. Available online. URL: http://www.
cdc.gov/ncipc/factsheets/fallcost.htm. Last updated
July 26, 2004.
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and
Skin Diseases (NIAMS). “Preventing Falls and Related
Fractures,” National Institutes of Health (NIH), Depart-
ment of Health and Human Services. Available online.
URL: http://www.niams.nih.gov/bone/hi/prevent_falls.
htm. Downloaded December 29, 2005.
Zucherman, James, M.D. and Judy Silverman, M.D. “Man-
aging Spinal Conditions in Older Persons,” The Journal of
Musculoskeletal Medicine 22, no. 5 (May 2005): 214–222.
electrical stimulation See NEUROSTIMULATION.
electromyogram (EMG) Similar to a NERVE CON-
DUCTION STUDY, this type of nerve function test
examines the condition of spinal nerves by studying
the electrical impulses they send into the muscles to
which they are attached. As explained by the Amer-
ican Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, “Injuries or
diseases that affect nerves and muscles can slow or
halt the movement of these electrical signals. If you
have pain, weakness or numbness in your back,
neck or hands, measuring the speed and degree of
electrical activity in your muscles and nerves can
help your doctor make a proper diagnosis.”
Procedure
In less than an hour, an electromyogram (EMG)
can assess one muscle or many. First, a tiny elec-
trode goes into each muscle being tested. The mus-
cle then remains at rest or actively contracts. Either
way, an EMG records the information onto a moni-
tor for the doctor to evaluate and report.
Risks and Complications
Metal objects and lotions can mar test results. Other-
wise, an EMG is generally accurate and safe, although
bruising and soreness may occur where an electrode
has been injected into a muscle. Patients on a daily
regimen of
ASPIRIN or another blood thinner need to
ask their doctors about the risk of bleeding.
Outlook and Lifestyle Modifi cations
If an EMG shows improper functioning of a muscle,
this may indicate spinal nerve compression caused,
for example, by
SPINAL STENOSIS or a HERNIATED DISC.
Therefore, the outlook may depend on the results
of other tests, such as an X-
RAY or MAGNETIC RESO-
NANCE IMAGING (MRI). Once the source of a prob-
lem has been identified, appropriate treatments or
other modifications can begin.
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. “Electrodi-
agnostic Testing,” AAOS. Available online. URL: http://
orthoinfo.aaos.org/fact/thr_report.cfm?Thread_ID=
356&topcategory=General%20Information. Down-
loaded December 29, 2005.
Spine Institute of New York. “EMG (Electromyogram),”
Beth Israel Medical Center. Available online. URL:
http://www.spineinstituteny.com/conditions/EMG.
html. Downloaded December 29, 2005.
endoscopic surgery See MINIMALLY INVASIVE
SURGERY.
environmental influences on spine health Can
RHEUMATISM forecast the weather? Does baromet-
ric pressure weigh heavily on the
BACK? Can rain
drop spinal pain? Maybe, but after a study of hun-
dreds of patients over the course of a few years, the
report in Rheumatology stated, “Among individuals
with arthritis, in spite of increasingly sophisticated
. . . methods, the purported association between
weather and pain largely remains an enigma.”
Everybody talks about the weather connection
to joint and back pain. However, a throng of envi-
ronmental irritants may damage spinal health. In
random disorder, these include harsh chemicals,
microbiological or infectious agents, radiation, toxic
vapors, allergens, fungicides, herbicides, pesticides,
mold, dust, dyes, and artificial additives to foods.
Most commonly, irritants in the air, water, and
soil affect the skin and other filtering organs, such
88 electrical stimulation
as the nose, lungs, kidneys, and liver, but toxins
influence vertebral health too. For example, eating
unwashed raw vegetables can introduce a pesticide
that harms the kidneys, which can mar
CALCIUM
absorption, thus leading to loss of bone density.
Other environmental influences may affect the
BACK or SPINE directly by producing CANCER cells or
SPINAL TUMOR. Usually, risks increase with long-term
exposure or high doses of toxins that can adversely
affect anyone, especially
INFANTS and ELDERLY
patients. Also, different locales and lifestyles bring
differing degrees of environmental risks.
Risks and Complications
A fact sheet on aluminum from the Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) warned,
“Children with kidney problems who were given
aluminum in their medical treatments developed
bone diseases. . . . It is not known whether alumi-
num affects children differently than adults, or what
the long-term effects might be in adults exposed as
children. Large amounts of aluminum have been
shown to be harmful to unborn and developing
animals because it can cause delays in skeletal and
neurological development.” To reduce risks, the
ATSDR said, “The most important way families can
lower exposure to aluminum is to know about the
sources of aluminum and lessen exposure to these
sources. Since aluminum is so common and wide-
spread in the environment, families cannot avoid
exposure to aluminum. Exposure to the low levels
of aluminum that are naturally present in food and
water and the forms of aluminum present in dirt
and aluminum cookware is generally not harm-
ful.” Regardless, “The best way to reduce exposure
to aluminum is to avoid taking large quantities of
soluble forms of aluminum such as aluminum-
containing antacids and buffered aspirin. Make
sure these products have child-proof caps so chil-
dren will not accidentally eat them.” Food additives
and antiperspirants often contain aluminum too,
but as a special concern, the ATSDR said, “Some
soy-based formulas may contain high levels of alu-
minum, so parents may want to consult with their
physician when choosing an infant formula,” or,
perhaps, read product labels carefully.
Communal concerns commonly arise about add-
ing fluoride to drinking water and toothpaste. In a
fact sheet on the subject, the ATSDR said, “Small
amounts of fluoride help prevent tooth cavities, but
high levels can harm your health. In adults, expo-
sure to high levels of fluoride can result in denser
bones. However, if exposure is high enough, these
bones may be more fragile and brittle and there
may be a greater risk of breaking the bone.” To
lessen the risk of getting too much fluoride, the
ATSDR advised parents that “in the home, children
may be exposed to high levels of fluorides if they
swallow dental products containing fluoridated
toothpaste, gels, or rinses. Parents should supervise
brushing and place at most, a small pea size dab of
toothpaste on the brush and teach children not to
swallow dental products. People who live in areas
with high levels of naturally-occurring fluoride in
the water should use alternative sources of drink-
ing water, such as bottled water.”
Statistics and Studies
Sometimes environmental influences and lifestyle
choices have more effect on bone health than
GENETIC FACTORS do. For example, Spine presented
the results of a Danish study conducted “to deter-
mine the relative contribution of genetic and envi-
ronmental factors to back pain in old age.” As the
article reported, “A current or previous diagnosis of
osteoporosis, degenerative joint disease, or lumbar
disc prolapse was found to significantly affect the
risk of back pain. Additive genetic effects explained
approximately one fourth of the liability to report
back pain in men and none of the occurrence in
women. Individual environmental effects were
found to explain roughly 75% of the occurrence of
back pain in men and 100% in women.”
Environmental influences cover a wide range of
possibilities, which, unlike genetic factors, usually
offer a choice of some kind. For example, Genetic
Epidemiology reported on a study that allowed
researchers to evaluate “the contribution of genetic
and life-style factors (exercise, smoking, and alco-
hol consumption) and the interactions between
non-genetic factors in determining bone mineral
density (BMD) of the hip and spine” with adjust-
ments made for age, weight, and height. According
to the report, “Exercise had significant beneficial
effects for male spine BMD and female hip BMD.
Alcohol consumption experienced in our sample
environmental influences on spine health 89
had significant beneficial effects on hip BMD in both
sexes. Although the main effect of smoking was not
significant, there were significant interaction effects
between smoking and other important factors (e.g.,
exercise, weight, alcohol consumption). For exam-
ple, for female spine BMD, exercise had significant
beneficial effects in smokers; however, its effect in
non-smokers was non-significant. This result indi-
cates that exercise may reduce deleterious effects
of smoking (if any) on BMD, but may have minor
effects in increasing BMD in non-smokers.”
Special Aids and Adaptations
With so many environmental influences and so
many factors interacting in a unique way, study may
well begin at home. For example, reading product
labels, asking pertinent questions, and investigating
questionable practices help consumers to become
informed about hazards to their spinal health. Each
person can also be aware of such symptoms as a
rash, stomach upset, and breathing problems that
occur after touching, ingesting, or inhaling some-
thing questionable. If any evidence exists, say, of a
toxic metal in the body, a blood test or urinalysis can
show the level. To lessen the likelihood of ingesting
chemicals in fresh produce and meat, natural foods
can be washed with water and, often, with vinegar
water to reduce contaminants. One part vinegar to
four parts water provides a natural way to disinfect
countertops and other surfaces too.
Drinking lots of filtered water, distilled water, or
natural apple juice may also help to cleanse the body
of toxins that accumulate from adverse environmen-
tal influences. In addition, well-balanced
NUTRITION
with daily supplies of
VITAMINS A, C, and E help to
build up the immune system as does
EXERCISE. Seen
or unseen factors continuously affect bone quality
in varying degrees, but at best, environmental influ-
ences offer fresh water, fresh air, and fresh produce
from unpolluted soil.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. “Tox-
FAQs ™ for Aluminum,” ATSDR Information Center.
Available online. URL: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/
tfacts22.html. Downloaded December 30, 2005.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. “Tox-
FAQs ™ for Fluorine, Hydrogen Fluoride, and Fluo-
rides,” ATSDR Information Center. Available online.
URL: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts11.html. Down-
loaded December 31, 2005.
Deng, Hong-Wen, Wel-Min Chen, Theresa Conway, Yan
Zhou, K. Michael Davies, Mary Ruth Stegman, Hongyi
Deng, and Robert R. Recker. “Determination of Bone
grees by Genetic and Life-Style Factors,” Genetic Epide-
miology 19 (2000): 160–177.
Hartvigsen, Jan, Kaare Christensen, M.D., Henrik
Frederiksen, M.D., and Hans Christian. “Genetic and
Environmental Contributions to Back Pain in Old Age:
A Study of 2,108 Danish Twins Aged 70 and Older,”
Spine 29, no. 8 (April 15, 2004): 897–901.
Wilder, F. V., B. J. Hall and J. P. Barrett. “Osteoarthritis
Pain and Weather,” Rheumatology 42, no. 8 (2003):
955–958.
epidural abscess See SPINAL INFECTION.
epidural injection This nonsurgical outpatient
procedure treats
SCIATICA pain or CERVICAL RADIC-
ULOPATHY with the injection of a synthetic steroid
similar to one produced naturally in the body. An
epidural injection can also be used as a diagnostic
tool to locate a source of
CHRONIC PAIN.
As explained by the Spine Institute of New York,
“The benefits to epidural steroid injections are three-
fold. 1. Injecting steroids into the epidural space
helps reduce the inflammation of the nerves, nerve
roots, or nerve coverings, which are the source of
leg pain. 2. The steroids serve as a temporary form
of pain relief so the body can begin its natural
healing process. 3. An epidural steroid injection is
a good diagnostic tool because its blockage of the
nerve pinpoints the source of your pain.”
An article in the BMJ (British Medical Journal)
said, “Mechanical back pain may often be associ-
ated with some nerve root irritation, or present as
an exacerbation of chronic symptoms.” Therefore,
“corticosteroid delivered into the epidural space is
able to attain high local concentrations. Reports on
thousands of patients indicate that epidural cortico-
steroid injections are relatively straightforward and
safe,” but “a need exists for well designed trials of
adequate size to determine the effectiveness of epi-
dural injection in back pain.” Also, “the evidence
90 epidural abscess
for and against epidural steroid injection should
be clearly explained to allow patients to make an
informed choice regarding their treatment.”
Procedure
Prior to the procedure, a medical technician swabs
the site and injects a local anesthetic. According to
the Chicago Institute of Neurosurgery and Neuro-
research (CINN), “After the area is numb, the anes-
thesiologist will insert a needle through the skin
into the epidural space that surrounds the spinal
cord and spinal nerves, and inject the steroid. You
will feel pressure, but no pain, while the anesthesi-
ologist injects the steroid. The nurse will then place
a small adhesive bandage on the injection site and
check your blood pressure and pulse.” Sometimes,
anxiety causes vital signs to become irregular. “If so,
the nurse will continue to monitor you for approxi-
mately 30 minutes while you sit or lie down. This
short period of rest will help your blood pressure
and pulse return to normal. The epidural steroid
injection procedure takes approximately 15 to 30
minutes to complete.”
Risks and Complications
About a week before an epidural injection, the
use of
ASPIRIN and other blood thinners must
be avoided, which presents a problem for some
patients. Regarding risks in general, the CINN said,
“The epidural steroid injection has a long history of
safe use. There is only a 1 percent chance that you
will suffer from a brief headache after receiving an
epidural steroid injection. Also, whenever skin is
punctured, there is a slight chance it may become
infected, resulting in redness, swelling, tenderness,
or warmth at the injection site.”
Rare complications include
SPINAL INFECTION in
the spinal canal. Also, some patients may experi-
ence adverse reactions to the medication or nerve
damage from needle slippage. Epidural injections
should not be used for back care during
PREGNANCY
nor for patients with
CANCER, spinal infection, or
SPINAL TUMOR.
Outlook and Lifestyle Modifi cations
An ice pack applied for about 15 minutes every hour
or so may relieve swelling and soreness until the
injection itself begins to ease the pain and inflam-
mation. Although the desired effect may take up to
10 days, many patients experience long-term relief.
If not, a second injection can be given in about two
weeks. Should this fail to alleviate pain, other types
of treatment can be considered, depending on the
condition. For instance, pain caused by a
HERNI-
ATED DISC, sciatica, or SPINAL STENOSIS may require
SURGERY, whereas pain caused by VERTEBRAL SUB-
LUXATION may respond to SPINAL MANIPULATION and
spine-strengthening
EXERCISE. Also, effective PAIN
MANAGEMENT may occur with ACUPUNCTURE or other
form of
COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE
(CAM).
Chicago Institute of Neurosurgery and Neuroresearch. “Epi-
dural Steroid Injection,” CINN. Available online. URL:
http://www.cinn.org/workinjury/services/epidural.
html. Downloaded December 31, 2005.
Samanta, Ash and Jo Samanta. “Is Epidural Injection of
Steroids Effective for Low Back Pain?” BMJ (British Med-
ical Journal) 328, no. 26 (June 2004): 1,509–1,510.
Spine Institute of New York. “Epidural Steroid Injec-
tion,” Beth Israel Medical Center. Available online. URL:
http://www.spineinstituteny.com/treatments/epidural.
html. Downloaded December 31, 2005.
ergonomic factors Researchers, writers, and read-
ers of encyclopedias may be inclined to think that
ergonomics means having a stressless chair to assist
POSTURE and avoid a BACKACHE while sitting at a
desk, but the Occupational Safety & Health Admin-
istration (OSHA) used broader terms. According
to the agency, musculoskeletal disorders affecting
the
BACK and SPINE encompass “Awkward Postures,
which might include: prolonged work with hands
above the head or with the elbows above the shoul-
ders; prolonged work with the neck bent; squatting,
kneeling, or lifting; handling objects with back bent
or twisted; repeated or sustained bending or twist-
ing of wrists, knees, hips or shoulders; forceful and
repeated gripping or pinching.” In addition, OSHA
mentioned “Forceful Lifting, Pushing Or Pulling,
which might include: handling heavy objects; mov-
ing bulky or slippery objects; assuming awkward
postures while moving objects.” Besides concerns
about proper
LIFTING and LOAD TOLERANCE, workers
need to be aware of “Prolonged Repetitive Motion,
ergonomic factors 91
which might include: keying; using tools or knives;
packaging, handling, or manipulating objects,” and
“Contact Stress, which might include: repeated con-
tact with hard or sharp objects, like desk or table
edges.” OSHA further mentioned “Vibration, which
might include: overuse of power hand tools.” With
such broad guidelines, OSHA most likely covered
almost every back.
Risks and Complications
Aging equipment used by an aging workforce can
increase the risk of back and spine problems. So
can a poor ergonomic design that looks good on
a drafting table but proves impractical in real life.
Workers can work with employers by reporting
their concerns about design flaws or job safety, but
implementing such changes can be costly and time-
consuming. In any case, ergonomic factors aim to
fit the job to the worker, not the other way around.
If this does not happen,
PARASPINAL MUSCLES or VER-
TEBRAE in the CERVICAL SPINE, THORACIC SPINE, and
LUMBAR SPINE attempt to adapt to the task at hand
or foot or back. Ultimately, something has to give.
Statistics and Studies
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics,
324,935 men and 194,910 women missed work in
2001 because of musculoskeletal problems. Ergo-
nomic injuries included teenaged workers and
those over 55, but the large majority of problems
occurred among young adult to middle-aged labor-
ers. Although one might expect new employees to
have the most discomfort, people who had been in
their jobs for over a year actually took more days
off from work. Of those recorded events, repetitive
motion disorders accounted for over 60,000 cases,
while another 219,665 resulted from exertion dur-
ing lifting.
Special Aids and Adaptations
To aid workers and employees in preventing mus-
culoskeletal problems, the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) offers a
hotline, 1-800-35-NIOSH (1-800-356-4674). The
NIOSH also suggested seven steps toward safety,
beginning with, “One: Looking for signs of a poten-
tial musculoskeletal problem in the workplace,
such as frequent worker reports of aches and pains,
or job tasks that require repetitive, forceful exer-
tions.” Other adaptations include “encouraging
worker involvement in problem-solving activities”
and training workers to evaluate musculoskeletal
concerns. In addition, “gathering data to identify
jobs or work conditions that are most problematic”
can occur by “using sources such as injury and ill-
ness logs, medical records, and job analyses.” Then
follow-up will aid in “identifying effective controls
for tasks that pose a risk of musculoskeletal injury
and evaluating these approaches once they have
been instituted to see if they have reduced or elimi-
nated the problem.” NIOSH suggested “establishing
health care management to emphasize the impor-
tance of early detection and treatment of muscu-
loskeletal disorders for preventing impairment and
disability.” As NIOSH also pointed out, it “is less
costly to build good design into the workplace than
to redesign or retrofit later.”
For the retrofit of a desirable office chair, an arti-
cle on Spine-health advised, “Seat height should be
easily adjustable. A pneumatic adjustment lever is
the easiest way to do this. A seat height that ranges
from about 16 to 21 inches off the floor should
work for most people. This allows the user to have
his or her feet flat on the floor, with thighs hori-
zontal and arms even with the height of the desk.”
An appropriately sized seat with padding and “fab-
ric that breathes is preferable to a harder surface.”
Adjustable armrests “should allow the user’s arms
to rest comfortably and shoulders to be relaxed”
with elbows but not forearms supported. Also, “an
ergonomic chair should have a lumbar adjustment
(both height and depth) so each user can get the
proper fit to support the inward curve of the lower
back.” Should none of the above prove workable,
recent designs in inflatable ball chairs provide a
bouncy option.
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. “How to Sit
at a Computer,” AAOS. Available online. URL: http://
orthoinfo.aaos.org/fact/thr_report.cfm?Thread_ID=
323&topcategory=General%20Information. Down-
loaded December 31, 2005.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Table 11: Number of Nonfatal
Occupational Injuries and Illnesses with Days Away
from Work Involving Musculoskeletal Disorders by
Selected Workers and Case Characteristics, 2001.”
92 ergonomic factors
U.S. Department of Labor. Available online. URL:
http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshwc/osh/case/ostb1154.pdf.
Downloaded December 31, 2005.
Lefler, Rodney K., “Choosing the Right Ergonomic Office
Chair,” Spine-health.com. Available online. URL:
http://www.spine-health.com/topics/conserv/chair/
chair01.html. Posted July 2, 2004.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
“Elements of Ergonomics Programs,” NIOSH. Available
online. URL: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/ephome2.
html. Downloaded December 31, 2005.
Occupational Safety & Health Administration. “Ergonom-
ics: Contributing Conditions,” OSHA, U.S. Department
of Labor. Available online. URL: http://www.osha.
gov/SLTC/ergonomics/job_analysis.html. Last revised
March 6, 2003.
estrogen See HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY and
PHYTOESTROGENS.
etidronate According to the “etidronate Center”
at MedicineNet.com, “Etidronate belongs to a class
of medications which strengthen bone. Bone is in
a constant state of remodeling in which old bone is
removed by cells called osteoclasts, and new bone
is laid down by cells called osteoblasts. Etidronate
inhibits bone removal by the osteoclasts.”
Dosage and Potential Side Effects
Used to treat conditions of bone loss, such as
OSTEO-
POROSIS or OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA (Paget’s Dis-
ease), a typical dosage is 200 to 400 mg taken orally.
In a hospital setting, etidronate may be administered
through an injection. In either case, this
BISPHOS-
PHONATE may interact adversely with PARATHYROID
HORMONE (PTH), OVER-THE-COUNTER PRODUCTS such
as antacids, and
CALCIUM or other mineral supple-
ments. Alcohol and caffeine also interfere with this
medication at any time, but etidronate must not be
taken with anything but water anyway.
Information from the DrugDigest.org Web site
said, “It is very important to take etidronate with a
full glass of plain water (6–8 ounces). Do not take
with orange juice, coffee, or other fluids as these
may decrease the absorption of etidronate. Do not
take etidronate with food. Wait at least 30 minutes
or longer after taking etidronate before you eat,
drink or take other medicines.” Equally important,
the patient must not sit, bend, or recline for at least
a half-hour after taking this medication to avoid
throat irritation. Otherwise, “serious side effects
from etidronate are rare.” However, “patients using
etidronate for more than 6 months at a time are
at an increased risk of developing bone fractures.”
If tar-like stools, skin rash, or bone pain occur,
patients should seek immediate medical attention.
Statistics and Studies
An article of expert opinions posted by MedicineNet.
com compared studies of etidronate with those for
the newer drug alendronate. Reportedly, “evidence
from studies demonstrates the safety and effective-
ness of alendronate in the prevention of vertebral
fractures . . . as well as hip and wrist fractures in post-
menopausal women with low bone density. Similar
evidence does not exist to support the effectiveness of
etidronate in fracture prevention, although etidronate
treatment is associated with an increase in lumbar
spine bone mineral density. Based on these studies,
alendronate should be the current bisphosphonate
of choice, whereas etidronate should be reserved for
patients with a contraindication to alendronate or
who are intolerant of alendronate therapy.”
DrugDigest.org. “Etidronate Disodium,” Clinical Phar-
ma cology©. Available online. URL: http://www.
drugdigest.org/DD/DVH/Uses/0,3915,6108|Etidronate%
2BDisodium%2B,00.html. Last updated September 16,
2005.
MedicineNet.com. “Ask The Experts! Question Regard-
ing: Alendronate vs. Etidronate for Osteoporosis.”
Available online. URL: http://www.medicinenet.com/
script/main/ques.asp?qakey=2699. Downloaded Jan-
uary 3, 2006.
———. “etidronate Center.” Available online. URL: http://
www.medicinenet.com/etidronate/article.htm. Down-
loaded December 31, 2005.
etodolac See NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY
DRUG THERAPY.
Ewing’s sarcoma See SPINAL TUMOR.
Ewing’s sarcoma 93
exercise As a form of heightened ACTIVITY, exer-
cise often has a specific theme, purpose, or goal.
Movements may aim to regain flexibility, maintain
mobility, or address spinal concerns of the
ELDERLY.
Exercise can also strengthen the
BACK of an ATH-
LETE, engage CHILDREN in play, and coax ADOLES-
CENTS outdoors. For those concerned about adverse
effects of
WEIGHT on the SPINE, exercise can trim
pounds and tighten tummies. Whether active or
passive, aerobic or anaerobic, low impact or high
impact, regular exercise firms muscles, including
the heart, and increases circulation in all parts of
the body. General themes of
STRENGTH TRAINING and
RESISTANCE TRAINING can meet their respective goals.
Before beginning any exercise program though,
older or sedentary people and patients with a med-
ical condition should walk the idea by a primary
care physician. When medical approval has been
obtained, the patient begins each round of exercise
by warming up and ends by cooling down.
The American Academy of Orthopaedic Sur-
geons (AAOS) defined warm-ups as “slow, rhyth-
mic exercises” that can be accomplished simply by
walking around a bit. With instructions to “inhale
deeply before each repetition of an exercise and
exhale when performing each repetition,” the
AAOS described exercises such as wall slides to
strengthen the
PARASPINAL MUSCLES: “Stand with
your back against a wall and feet shoulder-width
apart. Slide down into a crouch with knees bent to
about 90 degrees. Count to five and slide back up
the wall. Repeat 5 times.”
That exercise requires at least enough energy
to get out of bed, but a couple of the AAOS exer-
cises work well on awakening: “Lie on your back
with your arms at your sides. Lift one leg” and hold
“for a count of 10” As that leg eases back onto the
mattress, “Do the same with the other leg. Repeat
five times with each leg. If that is too difficult, keep
one knee bent and the foot flat . . . while raising
the leg.” This exercise strengthens the hips, aids
mobility, and tightens the stomach, while loosen-
ing stress on the lower back. To ease a
BACKACHE
even more, “Lie on your back with your knees bent
and feet flat on your bed or floor. Raise your knees
toward your chest. Place both hands under your
knees and gently pull your knees as close to your
chest as possible. Do not raise your head. Do not
straighten your legs as you lower them. Start with
five repetitions, several times a day.”
Risks and Complications
People with a
SPINAL INFECTION, FRACTURE, or fever
should avoid exercise as should anyone requiring
bedrest. For almost everyone else, the primary risk
of exercise lies in not doing any. As a Back.com arti-
cle stated, “Strengthening the abdominal and trunk
muscles, and the core of your body, is one of the
first steps towards improving your upright posture
and alleviating low back pain. Poor posture is com-
mon for those who lead a sedentary lifestyle, and
this places a tremendous strain on the lower back
and discs. By training your abdominal muscles to
encourage a proper upright posture, back pain can
be reduced to a significant degree.” Initially, exercise
can make a person sore. However, Back.com assured
readers, “If you have not been exercising regularly,
then it is common to feel more pain immediately
after exercising and especially the next day. This is
the beginning of a long-term process. Conditioning
takes time and it is very natural to experience more
pain at the beginning of an exercise program.”
Overdoing can complicate matters, particularly
if people sprint out of a recliner. To run away from
muscle
STRAIN or SPRAIN, a “Basic Training” article
in Runner’s World recommended “the 10% rule.
Ensure that your weekly distance does not increase
by more than 10% compared to the preceding
week. Going too far too fast will soon bring on
tiredness, soreness, injury and a premature end to
all your good intentions. If you have had to shelve
your training for a while, perhaps due to illness,
injury or vacation, make sure that you start back at
a much lower level and build up again.”
Besides mentioning the importance of correct tech-
nique and correctly fitted
SHOES, the article suggested
“the hard-easy rule,” which basically means, “ensure
that every hard workout is alternated by either a day
of rest, an alternative form of exercise or by a slower,
less intense, easy walk. This allows your muscles to
recover and recuperate from the previous day’s hard
training.” According to the article, a hard workout
means anything that involves “walking faster, harder
or longer than what is normal for you.” However,
“listen to your body. When your body tells you it
needs a rest, listen to it. Taking heed of your body’s
94 exercise
warning signals can mean the difference between
getting injured or ill, and walking pain-free and stay-
ing healthy. . . . If something aches or hurts for more
than two or three days, consult a sports practitioner.”
Also, “monitor your waking pulse rate. If it is five to
ten beats higher than normal, take a rest day.”
Statistics and Studies
People concerned about falls or balance may want
to dance away the plight. As a Men’s Health arti-
cle reported, “Swedish researchers found that 12
weeks of dance training improved skiers’ joint
mobility, range of hip motion, and spinal flexibility.
The subjects also experienced 67 percent less back
pain after the training. According to the study, any
type of dance that forces you to balance can help.
The skiers in the study performed modern or jazz
dance or ballet.”
An article published in Physical Therapy consid-
ered classic trunk exercises versus general exercise
in treating patients with
LOW BACK PAIN: “Clas-
sic trunk exercises performed in physical therapy
activate the abdominal and paraspinal muscles
as a whole and at a relatively high contraction
level.” Unless a patient had spinal instability, “a
general exercise program reduced disability in the
short term to a greater extent than a stabilization-
enhanced exercise approach in patients with recur-
rent nonspecific low back pain.”
Special Aids and Adaptations
To protect the spine and paraspinal muscles from
injury during exercise, warm-ups or gentle stretches
work especially well. Generally speaking, stretching
also aids
RANGE OF MOTION. As an article posted by
the University of Michigan Health System explained,
“With static stretching, your muscle is slowly length-
ened to the point where you feel a mild stretch. You
then hold the position for 15 to 30 seconds and then
slowly release the stretch. The most important rule
to follow for any stretching exercise is that it must
not be painful. If you stretch to the point of pain,
the muscle will not relax and might even become
tighter!” Done correctly, light stretches not only aid
relaxation, flexibility, agility, and balance but give
most people an overall sense of well-being.
While muscle flexibility aids one goal of exer-
cise, bone strengthening adapts another important
theme for back care. As an article on the National
Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF) Web site explained,
“Just as a muscle gets stronger and bigger the more
you use it, a bone becomes stronger and denser
when you place demands on it.” B
ONE BUILDING
may not be obvious to the eye, but “if you x-ray
the arms of a tennis player, you would see that
the bones in the playing arm are bigger and denser
than the bones in the other arm.” In addition, “two
types of exercises are important for building and
maintaining bone mass and density: weight-bear-
ing and resistance exercises. Weight-bearing exer-
cises are those in which your bones and muscles
work against gravity. This is any exercise in which
your feet and legs are bearing your weight. Jog-
ging, walking, stair climbing, dancing and soccer are
examples of weight-bearing exercise with different
degrees of impact. Swimming and bicycling are not
weight-bearing. . . . The second type of exercises are
resistance exercises or activities that use muscular
strength to improve muscle mass and strengthen
bone. These activities include weight lifting, such as
using free weights and weight machines found at
gyms and health clubs.”
With a go-ahead from a doctor, almost any-
one without a broken bone or illness can gradu-
ally adapt to sensible activity. However, an exercise
program must also adapt well to each person with
a particular purpose or personal theme ready to be
exercised.
American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. “Back
Pain Exercises,” AAOS. Available online. URL: http://
orthoinfo.aaos.org/fact/thr_report.cfm?Thread_ID=
17&topcategory=Spine. Downloaded January 3, 2006.
Clapis, Phyllis. “Stretching,” University of Michigan
Health System. Available online. URL: http://www.
med.umich.edu/1libr/sma/sma_stretch_sma.htm.
Koumantakis, George A., Paul J. Watson, and Jacqueline
A. Oldham. “Trunk Muscle Stabilization Training Plus
General Exercise Versus General Exercise Only: Ran-
domized Controlled Trial of Patients with Recurrent
Low Back Pain,” Physical Therapy 85, no. 3 (March
2005): 209–225.
Mackintosh, Terry. “Basic Training,” Runner’s World.
Available online. URL: http://www.runnersworld.
com/article/0,5033,s6-51-183-0-1917,00.html. Down-
loaded January 3, 2006.
exercise 95
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