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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_3998_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
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Back problems 217
OSCE Counselling case
OSCE COUNSELLING CASE 4.5 –
‘Doctor, I have terrible backache. The
scan shows that I have a slipped disc.
Don’t I need an operation to take the
slipped disc away?’
Surgery for prolapsed discs does not cure back pain. The indication for surgery to remove a prolapsed
disc, or rather that portion of the disc that has prolapsed, is chronic back pain that fails to settle with
appropriate conservative measures including a very committed, specic physiotherapy programme.
In such cases discectomy is by and large successful in relieving leg pain but has little or no impact
on back pain. Long-term follow-up studies of patients undergoing surgical versus non-surgical
management for sciatica in relation to prolapsed lumbar discs show that there is no overall difference in
outcome.
There are specic risks associated with discectomy and these include nerve root injury at the time of
surgery, chronic brosis as a consequence of surgical intervention and more immediate problems such as
epidural haematoma, which can lead to paraplegia, although this is exceedingly rare.
A degenerate disc that leads to a disabled motion segment in the spine is occasionally a source of
back pain, which can be managed with spinal fusion. The risks of spinal fusion surgery are similar to, but
greater than, those of simple discectomy, and hence every effort should be made to optimize patients’
conditions through non-surgical means; patients should be well informed about the risks of any surgery
that they consider.
REVISION PANEL
Scheuermann’s disease is an osteochondritic process that can cause back pain in some individuals
and no symptoms in others. Kyphotic changes of the spine will often be present and on
radiograph simple anterior wedging of the thoracic vertebrae will be seen.
A prolapsed intervertebral disc often occurs in a patient who has had a long-standing history of
mechanical back pain. Symptoms will be dependent on the severity of the prolapse and what
nerve root(s) are compressed. A full neurological examination is mandatory.
Cauda equina syndrome must be treated as an emergency with urgent examination, imaging, and
if necessary, decompression surgery to avoid long-term disability.
Osteoporotic insufciency fractures are usually seen as wedge compression fractures on
radiograph.
Signs of an unstable vertebral fracture on radiograph include wedging in the lateral direction,
a retropulsed fragment encroaching on the spinal canal, loss of posterior vertebral height, and
widening of the distance between the pedicles in comparison to the vertebrae above and below.
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218 Trauma and orthopaedic surgery
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The contribution of Ian Pallister to this chapter in the rst edition is gratefully acknowledged.
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Urology
Suresh Ganta
HAEMATURIA
Questions 222
Clinical cases 222
OSCE Counselling case 223
Key concepts 224
Answers 225
Clinical cases 225
OSCE Counselling case 230
Revision panel 230
STONE DISEASE
Questions 231
Clinical cases 231
OSCE Counselling cases 232
Key concepts 233
Answers 234
Clinical cases 234
OSCE Counselling cases 238
Revision panel 239
BLADDER OUTFLOW OBSTRUCTION
Questions 240
Clinical cases 240
OSCE Counselling case 241
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220 Urology
Key concepts 242
Answers 243
Clinical cases 243
OSCE Counselling case 247
Revision panel 248
PROSTATE CANCER AND PSA
Questions 249
Clinical cases 249
OSCE Counselling cases 250
Key concepts 251
Answers 252
Clinical cases 252
OSCE Counselling case 256
Revision panel 258
INCONTINENCE
Questions 259
Clinical cases 259
OSCE Counselling case 260
Key concepts 261
Answers 262
Clinical cases 262
OSCE Counselling case 267
Revision panel 268
NEUROPATHIC BLADDER
Questions 269
Clinical cases 269
Key concepts 270
Answers 271
Clinical cases 271
Revision panel 273
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Urology 221
UPPER TRACT OBSTRUCTION
AND RENAL MASS
Questions 274
Clinical cases 274
OSCE Counselling case 275
Key concepts 276
Answers 277
Clinical cases 277
OSCE Counselling case 281
Revision panel 282
SCROTAL PAIN, TESTICULAR LUMPS
Questions 283
Clinical cases 283
Key concepts 284
Answers 285
Clinical cases 285
Revision panel 288
ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION/INFERTILITY
Questions 289
Clinical cases 289
OSCE Counselling case 290
Key concepts 291
Answers 292
Clinical cases 292
OSCE Counselling case 296
Revision panel 296
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222 Urology
HAEMATURIA
Questions
Clinical cases
For each of the clinical case scenarios given
Q1: What is the likely differential diagnosis?
Q2: What issues in the given history support/refute a particular diagnosis?
Q3: What additional features would you seek to support a particular diagnosis?
Q4: What clinical examination would you perform and why?
Q5: What investigations would be most helpful and why?
Q6: What treatment options are appropriate?
CASE 5.1 –
‘I can see blood in my urine’
A 65-year-old man presents to his general practitioner (GP) with painless total haematuria with some
clots. He has no associated urinary symptoms. He has been a moderate smoker for the last 40 years and
worked in a chemical factory for 25 years. He has noticed a half-stone weight loss (about 3 kg) over the
last 4 months.
CASE 5.2 –
‘I have to go quite frequently and also have blood in my
urine’
A 35-year-old woman presents with dysuria and hourly urinary frequency. She has signicant urgency
and terminal haematuria. She has suprapubic discomfort and a feeling of incomplete emptying of her
bladder. She has also had u-like symptoms over the last 2 days. She has two children and is a smoker.
CASE 5.3 –
‘There is blood on testing my urine’
A 37-year-old businessman has an insurance medical health check and is found to have blood in his
urine with a dipstick test. He is completely asymptomatic. He does not smoke and has had no urinary
symptoms.
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Haematuria 223
OSCE Counselling case
OSCE COUNSELLING CASE 5.1 –
‘How do I prevent recurrent urine
infections?’
A 45-year-old woman presents with recurrent urinary infections. She has had three vaginal deliveries
and required a forceps delivery for the last child who is now aged 18 years. She has noticed some stress
leakage of urine and has a mild vaginal prolapse.
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224 Urology
Key concepts
HAEMATURIA
This is the presence of blood in the urine and is conrmed by the presence of >10 to 20 red blood cells
(RBCs)/mL in the urine. Macroscopic (frank, visible) haematuria is more serious because it is more often
associated with pathology than microscopic haematuria. It may be either associated with symptoms of
bladder irritability and pain, or painless. Painless haematuria may be the only symptom of an underlying
cancer. Surprisingly, less than 50 per cent of patients presenting with macroscopic haematuria are found
to have a serious underlying disease.
Types of haematuria
Initial haematuria usually arises from the urethra. It occurs least commonly and is usually secondary
to inammation.
Total haematuria is most common and indicates bleeding from either the bladder or upper tracts.
Terminal haematuria occurs at the end of micturition and usually from bladder neck or prostate and
occurs when the bladder neck contracts and squeezes all residual urine.
BLADDER CANCER
This commonly presents with painless macroscopic haematuria (90 per cent). In 10 per cent of cases
presenting with bladder cancer, microscopic haematuria is the only presenting symptom. Transitional cell
carcinoma is the most common type of bladder cancer in Europe and the United States.
Bladder tumours are graded according to cytological and nuclear features into well differentiated
(G1), intermediately differentiated (G2) and poorly differentiated (G3).
Tumours are staged according to the depth of invasion into the muscle wall:
pTa: non-invasive papillary carcinoma conned to the lamina propria
pT1: tumour invades the subepithelial connective tissue known as the lamina propria
pT2: tumour invades muscle (called the detrusor muscle)
pT3: tumour invades perivesical tissue
pT4: tumour invades prostate, uterus, vagina or pelvic or abdominal wall.
Treatment depends on the stage and grade of the tumour as well as the general condition of the
patient. Non-invasive (pTa, pTis, pT1) tumours are mainly managed by endoscopic resection and
intravesical treatment with chemotherapy or immunotherapy. The main options for muscle invasive
tumours (pT2 and above) are managed by surgery to remove the bladder or radiotherapy to the bladder
with or without chemotherapy.
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Haematuria 225
Answers
Clinical cases
CASE 5.1 –
‘I can see blood in my urine’
A1: What is the likely differential diagnosis?
Bladder cancer
Bleeding from the prostate
Renal carcinoma
Bladder stone
Cystitis
A2: What issues in the given history support/refute a particular diagnosis?
Frank haematuria has a 20 per cent probability of detecting an underlying urological malignancy. Ninety
per cent of bladder cancers present with haematuria. Pain may be absent with malignancy and is usually
associated with an inammatory process causing haematuria. Smoking and occupational exposure to
chemicals such as aromatic amines in the leather/textile/rubber/paint industry are known risk factors for
bladder cancer. Renal tumours are more often discovered incidentally by imaging of the abdomen for
other reasons. The typical triad of symptoms with loin pain, mass and haematuria are only present in 11
per cent of patients with renal tumours.
A3: What additional features would you seek to support a particular
diagnosis?
The duration and severity of bleeding would determine the need to resuscitate. The timing of
haematuria often indicates the site of origin (e.g. initial, total and terminal haematuria). Clots in
the urine often indicate severity and may also cause clot retention of urine. The shape of clots (e.g.
vermicular [worm like]) often associated with pain may be related to upper ureteric (from ureter). The
most common cause of gross haematuria in the older population is bladder cancer.
A4: What clinical examination would you perform and why?
Clinical examination is performed to determine blood loss (e.g. pallor), plus complete physical
examination to identify abdominal masses and digital rectal examination (DRE) to examine the prostate.
A5: What investigations would be most helpful and why?
Urine microscopy: to rule out infection, glomerular haematuria (from renal glomerulus) is
associated with dysmorphic (abnormal shapes of red blood cells) red cell casts. Crystals in urine
may suggest stone disease. Parasites and ova may be noted in the urine (schistosomiasis).
Urine cytology: There is a high specicity (96 per cent) to identify transitional cell cancer of the
urinary tract but low overall sensitivity (<75 per cent). It is particularly useful in cases of carcinoma in
situ of the bladder and for high-grade tumours.
NMP-22 relies on identifying nuclear matrix protein in urine as a tumour marker in urine. UroVysion
®
is a urinary marker that uses uorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to identify certain chromosomal
foci to identify tumour cells and has high specicity (75 per cent) and sensitivity (98 per cent).
Intravenous urogram (IVU)/CT urography: identies anatomy and function of the upper tracts.
Contrast is injected into the vein and this is ltered in the kidney into the collecting system of
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226 Urology
the urinary tract. Then CT scans of the abdomen and pelvis may identify anatomy and delay in
accumulation in the collecting system.
Ultrasonography: identies abnormality of renal parenchyma.
Cystoscopy: ‘gold standard’ for assessment of the bladder – exible cystoscopy under local
anaesthetic or a rigid cystoscopy under general anaesthetic. This identies the site of bleeding and
whether biopsy/resection is possible.
A6: What treatment options are appropriate?
Bladder tumours are diagnosed and staged after trans-urethral resection of the bladder tumour
(TURBT) and complete removal. The diagnosis of the bladder tumour often describes the cell type (e.g.
transitional cell type, 90 per cent; adenocarcinoma, 2 per cent; squamous cell type, 5 per cent), depth of
invasion, and grade of the cancer. Further imaging (e.g. computed tomography [CT]) may be appropriate
in certain cases with larger tumours, to assess the extent of invasion into the bladder muscle wall and
the distant spread.
Supercial bladder tumours (80 per cent, non-muscle invasive) are prone to recurrence after
endoscopic treatment and ablation of the tumour. This is due to a urothelial eld change by a
combination of genetic factors and external risk factors. The rate of developing further recurrences
depends on the size of the largest tumour, number of tumours, T category, grade of tumour at
diagnosis, and whether a recurrence was noted at 3 months after the primary resection.
A bladder tumour is more likely to progress both in terms of stage progression (Ta to T1/T1 to T2) and
grade progression (G1 to G2/G2 to G3). Progression affects overall and disease-specic survival.
MANAGEMENT
Supercial bladder cancer (Tis, Ta, T1)
Small, solitary, low-grade mucosal diploid tumours (Ta)
Low risk or recurrence
TURBT followed by a single dose of intravesical chemotherapy
Surveillance for recurrence by cystoscopy
Multifocal, high-grade aneuploid tumours (Tis or T1)
TURBT followed by a single dose of intravesical chemotherapy
Intravesical immunotherapy/chemotherapy (single post-operative dose or every week for 6 weeks):
− Bacille Calmette–Guérin (BCG) for grade 3 supercial bladder cancer G3pTa/pT1 or Tis
(carcinoma in situ)
− Intravesical course of chemotherapy (e.g. mitomycin)
Invasive bladder cancer (T1–T4)
Neo-adjuvant chemotherapy followed by radical cystectomy with pelvic lymphadenectomy and
urinary diversion
Neo-adjuvant chemotherapy followed by external beam bladder irradiation
Systemic chemotherapy using M-VAC (methotrexate/vinblastine sulfate/doxorubicin [adriamycin]/
cis-platinum)
Metastatic bladder cancer
Chemotherapy
M-VAC/paclitaxel-based chemotherapy
Gemcitabine/cis-platinum
Untreated metastatic bladder cancer has a 2-year survival rate of <5 per cent.
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