Добавил:
Sekretar
kiopkiopkiop18@yandex.ru
t.me/Prokururor I Вовсе не секретарь, но почту проверяю
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_158_библиотеки_им_акад_М_И_Перельмана
.pdf
2
3
4
(
'arotenoids
8
40
Rubber
>
100
>500
Mono-,
sesqui-,
di-,
and
sesterterpenes
contain
the
isoprene
units
liiil
od
in
a
head
to
tail
fashion.
The
triterpenes
and
carotenoids
in
iiiilcrpcnes)
contain
two
C15
and
C20
units
respectively
linked
h>
id
Io
head.
Many
terpenes
are
hydrocarbons,
but
oxygen-
iitilnining
compounds
such
as
alcohols,
aldehydes
or
ketones
are
и
и
lound.
These
derivatives
are
frequently
named
terpenoids.
I"iio
and
sesquiterpenes
are
the
chief
constituents
of
the
essential
■
ill.
while
the
other
terpenes
are
constituents
of
balsams,
resins,
i
i
and
rubber.
Olcoresin
is
a
roughly
equal
mixture
of
turpentine
(85%
C10-
iiuiiiolcrpcnes
and
15%
C15-
sesquiterpenes)
and
rosin
о
'll
diterpene)
that
acts
in
many
conifer
species
to
seal
wounds
and
i
loxie
to
both
invading
insects
and
their
pathogenic
fungi.
A
in
и
iiber
of
inducible
terpenoid
defensive
compounds
(phytoalexins)
hum
angiosperm
species
are
well
known.
These
include
both
■
i|iiilcrpenoid
and
diterpenoid
types.
Isoprenoid
units
are
also
h
i
nid
within
the
framework
of
other
natural
molecules.
Thus,
indole
hl
uloids,
several
quinones
(vitamin
K),
alcohols
(vitamin
E,
vitamin
'■
11
hi
ned
from
b-carotene),
phenols,
isoprenoid
alcohols
(also
l
in
iwn
as
terpenols
or
polyprenols)
also
contain
terpenoid
fragments.
I
In-
origin
of
the
ubiquitous
isoprene
unit
and
its
conversion
into
и
ions
compound
has
been
extensively
studied.The
biogenesis,
iiiiili'iular
regulation
and
function
of
plant
terpenoids
has
been
и
naively
reviewed
by
Bouvier
F
et
al.(Prog
Lipid
Res
2005,44,
357).
■
i
i
oiding
to
Bohlmann
J.,
there
are
in
excess
of
1000
monoterpenes,
■
i
и
11
Ilian
7000
sesquiterpenes
and
more
than
3000
diterpenes
[71].
•1.2.
Monoterpens,
essential
oils
and
the
methods
of
■'XI
ratting
essential
oils
they
are
the
terpenes
that
have
been
known
for
several
centuries
i
i
oniponents
of
the
fragrant
oils
obtained
from
leaves,
flowers
and
hull
1
,.
Monoterpenes,
with
sesquiterpenes,
are
the
main
constituents
https://t.me/med1917
of
essential
oils.
While
a
few,
such
as
camphor,
occur
in
a
near
pure
form,
most
occur
as
complex
mixtures,
often
of
isomers
difficult
to
separate.
These
essential
oils
have
numerous
actions,
such
as
allelochemical
functions
between
plants
and
between
plants
ano
predators.
A
role
in
wound
healing
was
also
observed
[72].
Essential
oils
The
answer
is
terpenes.
Terpenes
(TUR-peen)
are
a
large
class
of
organic
hydrocarbons
produced
by
a
wide
variety
of
plants,
and
are
referred
to
as
terpenoids
when
denatured
by
oxidation
(drying
and
curing
the
flowers).
They
are
the
main
building
block
of
any
plant
resin
or
«essential
oils»
and
contribute
to
the
scent,
flavor,
and
colors.
Some
are
even
known
to
have
medicinal
value.
Terpenes
are
the
main
class
of
aromatic
compounds
found
in
cannabis
and
have
even
been
proven
to
interact
synergistically
with
cannabinoids
to
provide
for
a
range
of
different
effects.
While
many
people
believe
that
it
is
the
sticky
glands
of
THC
(delta9-tetrahy
drocannabinol)
that
provide
cannabis
with
its
peculiar
aroma,
it
is
in
fact
the
more
unstable
monoterpenes
and
sesquiterpenes
that
are
responsible.
In
fact,
it
is
the
smell
of
the
specific
sesquiterpene,
Caryophyllene
oxide
that
drug
dogs
are
able
to
detect
when
probing
for
cannabis
[73].
The
methods
of
extracting
essential
oils
There
are
many
different
ways
to
extract
essential
oils
and
they
are
listed
below:
-
Enfleurage
-
Expressed
Oils
-
Steam
Distillation
-
Solvent
Extraction
-
Fractional
Distillation
and
Percolation
-
Carbon
Dioxide
Extraction
-
Phytonic
Process
Enfleurage
Enfleurage
is
one
of
the
oldest
methods
of
extracting
essential
oils
and
is
rarely
used
these
days
because
of
its
high
cost.
It
involves
placing
the
flower
petals
on
a
layer
of
glass
that
is
first
spread
with
a
thin
layer
of
fat
called
«chassis».
The
volatile
oil
diffuses
into
the
fat,
then
the
fat
is
collected
and
the
oil
is
extracted
from
the
fat
using
alcohol.
https://t.me/med1917
l
x
pression
of
oils
When
oils
are
taken
from
the
rind
of
fruits
they
are
called
■
■
pressed
oils».
This
method
is
cold
and
does
not
involve
any
nl
vents
or
heat
of
any
kind.
Most
of
the
citrus
oils
are
extracted
in
ill'll
manner
including
grapefruit,
lime,
orange
and
lemon
essential
nils.
These
are
not
technically
considered
essential
oils
for
this
reason,
luii
l
hey
are
still
definitely
therapeutic
oils.
The
most
important
thing
in
consider
with
cold
pressed
oils
is
the
source
of
the
crop
since
■
inns
fruits
are
constantly
sprayed
with
pesticides
and
it
can
be
very
■
oiicentrated
in
the
oil
[74-75].
Steam
distillation
method
essential
oils
Steam
distillation
has
been
used
for
hundreds
of
years
and
today
и
mains
one
of
the
most
favorably
methods
of
extracting
essential
oil
Technically
speaking
if
it
not
extracted
using
steam
distillation
hi
cold
expression
it
is
not
a
therapeutic
grade
essential
oil.
There
are
in
lually
three
different
steam
processes
that
are
described
further
in
llie
distilling
section.
But
in
all
of
the
methods,
steam
is
used
10
nipture
the
oil
membranes
in
the
plant
and
release
the
essential
nil
I
lie
steam
carries
the
essential
oil
to
a
condenser
and
then
as
it
и
liquefies
the
lighter
essential
oil
floats
on
top.
The
water
and
oil
is
ilicn
separated
and
the
oil
portion,
of
course,
is
the
essential
oil
[73].
Solvent
extraction
method
Solvent
extraction
is
a
method
of
extracting
essential
oils
that
is
iloininated
by
the
perfume
industry.
And
technically
does
not
pioduce
therapeutic
grade
oils
because
chemicals
such
as
hexane,
in
clone,
di-methylene-chloride
and
others
are
used
in
the
process.
Percolation
and
fractional
distillation
f
ractional
distillation
separates
the
volatile
oil
in
different
11
nd
ions
or
portions
at
various
boiling
points.
This
is
used
in
oil
и
I
incries
for
distillation
of
petroleum
products
and
is
not
suited
for
therapeutic
grade
essential
oils.
Percolation
is
one
of
the
newer
methods
of
extraction
essential
mis.
It
is
similar
to
normal
distillation
but
the
equipment
is
literally
upside
down.
It
has
been
used
successfully
in
France;
however
ninctimes
an
emulsion
is
produced
that
can
not
be
separated
out,
so
until
it
can
be
further
developed
you
will
not
see
it
on
a
large
scale.
https://t.me/med1917
Super
critical
fluid
extraction
(Carbon
Dioxide
Extraction)
Super
critical
fluid
extraction
or
carbon
dioxide
extraction
is
also
a
fairly
new
solvent
extraction
process
that
uses
carbon
dioxide
at
very
high
pressure.
The
carbon
dioxide
is
injected
into
the
tanx
where
the
plant
material
is
contained
and
acts
as
a
solvent
to
extract
the
oil.
The
carbon
dioxide
is
colorless
and
odorless
liquid
and
can
be
completely
removed
which
is
a
good
thing;
however,
there
is
no
research
at
this
point
to
verify
if
there
are
any
toxic
effects
of
using
this
procedure.
Additionally,
the
distilling
equipment
is
extremely
expensive.
So
until
more
is
known
about
this
process,
it
is
advised
to
use
only
steam
distilled
and
expressed
oils.
The
Phytonic
Process
The
Phytonic
process
is
a
one
of
the
newest
methods
of
extracting
essential
oils
using
non-CFCs
(non-chlorofluorocarbons).
It
is
also
called
Florasol
Extraction
and
the
oils
are
referred
to
as
phytols.
Acyclic
monoterpens
They
can
be
considered
as
derivatives
of
2,6-dimethyloctane.
Among
natural
molecules,
the
followings
are
well
known
and
have
several
structural
isomers.
2,6-dimethyloctane
a-myrcene
cis-a-osimene
4-trans-6-alloosimene
Citronellol
Linalool
Nerol
Geraniol
https://t.me/med1917
I
)e
tensive
role
of
simple
terpenes
have
been
demonstrated
as
for
u
юге
complex
compounds.
Ocimene
and
linalool
(with
farnesene)
were
shown
to
be
produced
by
de
novo
biosynthesis
in
plants
iIn1
1
urged
by
insect
herbivories
[76].
i'liese
compounds
likely
mediate
the
interaction
between
licrbivores
and
their
natural
enemies,
attracted
by
terpenes.
I
sperimentally.
a
study
of
Arabidopsis
thaliana
engineered
to
erexpress
a
terpene
synthase
leading
to
the
emition
of
large
iiinounts
of
linalool,
which
is
normally
produced
only
in
trace
levels.
(
ompared
with
wild-type
A.
thaliana,
the
transgenic
plants
■
i)
’
iiilicantly
repelled
Myzus
persicae
aphids
[77].
That
approach
i
tiny
be
a
solution
to
the
protection
of
cultivated
plants
against
insect
hi
lucks.
Geraniol,
produced
by
geranium,
rose
and
lemon,
has
been
iJj'lermined
to
be
also
an
alarm
pheromone
of
the
insect
Corythucha
i
llia/a
which
attacks
the
sycamore
tree.
A
great
number
of
orchid
species
in
the
New
World
tropics
have
incvolved
with
the
insects
Euglossini
by
producing
floral
scents,
highly
attractive
to
insect
males
over
great
distances,
for
efficient
pollination.
Ipsdienol
has
been
shown
to
be
the
main
attractive
i
oinponent
of
the
orchid
scent
.
Ipsdienol
Monocyclic
monoterpens
l'hcy
are
derived
from
cyclohexane
with
an
isopropyl
sub-
ilililent.
The
most
typical
are:
limonene
y-terpinene
a-phellandrene
p-cymene
ascaridole
pulegone
https://t.me/med1917
Limonene
is
an
important
volatile
emitted
by
the
holm
oak
(Quercus
ilex),
and
acts
as
allelochemical
in
inhibiting
seed
germination
of
other
plant
species
[78].
About
30,000
tons/year
of
limonene
are
extracted
from
natural
sources
(turpentine
oil)
and
are
used
for
the
syntheses
of
other
optically
active
products.
Bicyclic
monoterpens
Thuyone
is
best
known
for
being
a
toxic
chemical
(the
a
form
is
the
most
active)
in
absinthe,
a
product
extract
from
Artemisia
absinthium.
Its
psychedelic
effects
consecutive
to
absinthe
consumption
is
disputed.
camphor
umbellulol
a-pinene
Pharmacologically,
thujone
acts
mainly
on
the
GABA
receptors
in
the
brain
and
exhibits
psychoactive
response.
In
many
countries
the
amount
of
thujone
allowed
in
food
or
drink
products
is
regulated
(in
Europe,
the
maximum
level
tolerated
is
25
mg/1).
Other
plants
containing
thujone,
such
as
the
coniferous
Thuja
occidentalis,
are
used
in
herbal
medicine,
mainly
for
their
immune-system
stimulating
effects.
Pinene
is,
as
limonene,
an
allelochemichal
emitted
by
the
roots
of
Quercus
ilex.
Camphor
and
pinene
are
also
allelochemicals
emitted
https://t.me/med1917
bv
Salvia
leucophylla
[79].
Pinene
is
among
the
more
readily
и
vnilable
optically
active
substance
(about
30,000
tons/year)
and
is
и
.cd
lor
the
syntheses
of
other
chemical
products.
Iridoids
are
a
cl
ass
of
bicyclic
monoterpenes
found
in
a
wide
finely
of
plants
and
in
some
animals.
They
are
often
intermediates
hi
I
lie
biosynthesis
of
alkaloids.
Chemically,
iridoids
usually
consist
"I
n
cyclopentane
ring
fused
to
a
six-membered
oxygen
heterocycle,
>i
<
exemplified
by
nepetalactone,
the
active
ingredient
in
catnip
iNi
’
pela
spp),
plant
known
for
the
behavioral
effects
they
have
on
nils
О
Nepetalactone
Iridoids
are
typically
found
in
plants
as
glycosides,
most
often
I
и
hi
nd
to
glucose.
Cleavage
of
a
bond
in
the
cyclopentane
ring
gives
и
to
a
subclass
known
as
seco-iridoids.
Iridoids
are
found
in
many
imdicinal
plants
and
may
be
responsible
for
the
some
of
their
iiliiinnaceutical
activities.
Isolated
and
purified,
iridoids
exhibit
a
1
ide
range
of
bioactivities
including
cardiovascular,
hypoglycemic,
inti
inflammatory,
antispasmodic,
antitumor,
antiviral,
immuno
modulator
and
purgative
activities
[80].
They
are
produced
by
plants
pi
iiniirily
as
ad
efense
against
herbivores
or
against
infection
by
ши
roorganisms.
To
humans
and
other
mammals,
they
have
also
a
if
iiTrcnt
bitter
taste.
It
can
also
be
used
as
a
mosquito
repellent.
As
"i
her
terpenes,
iridoids
may
function
as
protective
substances
in
the
iiiiiiiiil
kingdom,
especially
for
insects.
These
compounds
are
iililnined
from
the
diet
or,
as
the
iridoids
of
leaf
beetles,
they
are
Hinde
by
the
insect
itself.
Many
monoterpenes
possess
antitumor
hi
livily
in
animal
and
cell
models.
They
have
also
antioxidant
properties,
g-terpene
and
hydroxytyrosol
being
among
the
most
■
lleclive.
https://t.me/med1917
4.3.
Sesquiterpenes
Sesquiterpenoids
are
defined
as
the
group
of
15
carbon
compounds
derived
by
the
assembly
of
3
i
soprenoid
units
and
they
are
found
mainly
in
higher
plants
but
also
in
invertebrates.
Sesquiterpenes,
with
monoterpenes,
are
an
important
constituent
of
essential
oils
in
plants.
They
are
the
most
diverse
group
of
isoprenoids.
In
plants,
they
function
as
pheromones
and
juvenile
hormones.
Sesquiterpene
structures
present
several
acyclic,
mono-,
bi-,
tri-,
and
tetracyclic
systems.
Some
of
natural
sesquiterpenoids
are
shown
below.
Acyclic
compounds
The
acyclic
representative
are
also
called
farnesans,
term
derived
from
the
basic
structure,
farnesol.
Farnesol
and
nerolidol
are
very
co
mm
on
and
are
isolated
from
essential
oils
of
various
sources.
OH
Farnesol
Nerolidol
Farnesol
is
widely
distributed
in
many
essential
oils
such
as
citronella,
neroli,
cyclamen,
lemon
grass,
tuberose,
rose,
musk,
and
balsam.
It
is
used
in
perfumery
to
emphasize
the
odors
of
perfumes.
Moreover,
it
is
a
natural
pesticide
for
mites
and
is
also
a
pheromone
for
several
insects
and
mammals,
including
elephants
(teritorial
marking,
individual
recognition,
mate
attraction).
Famesyl
acetate
is
found
in
the
web
of
some
spiders
(Pholcidae)
to
attract
females
[81].
Farnesol
was
also
show
to
be
the
«quorum-sensing
molecule»
identified
in
fungi
[82].
The
presence
of
farnesol
prevents
the
yeast-
to-mycelium
conversion,
resulting
in
actively
budding
yeasts
without
influencing
cellular
growth
rates.
This
study
is
the
first
to
identify
an
extracellular
molecule
mediating
an
eukaryotic
quorum-sensing
system.
Farnesol
is
active
against
a
v
ariety
of
Candida
albicans
at
concentrations
between
1
and
50
mM
[83].Farnesol
is
frequently
https://t.me/med1917
н
11lied
with
one
fatty
acid
having
8
to
12
carbon
atoms.Farnesene,
in
analogue
of
farnesol,
is
known
to
act
as
an
alarm
pheromone
in
11
di
ids.
Released
during
predator
attack,
it
causes
aphids
to
stop
ь
ia
ling,
disperse,
and
give
birth
to
winged
(rather
than
wingless)
и
ims,
which
leave
their
host
plants.
Famesene
is
produced
by
de
novo
biosynthesis
by
cotton
plants
when
damaged
by
insect
In
iliivories
[84].
These
compounds
likely
mediate
the
interaction
i"
I
ween
herbivores
and
their
natural
enemies,
attracted
by
terpenes.
Famesene
Nerolidol
is
present
in
neroli,
ginger,
jasmine,
lavender,
tea
tree
uni
lemon
grass.
The
aroma
of
nerolidol
is
woody
and
reminiscent
of
In
".
h
bark.
It
is
used
as
a
flavoring
agent
and
in
perfumery.
It
was
I
.и
shown
to
be
produced
by
the
leaves
of
a
large
number
of
plant
.lecies
in
response
to
herbivory
insects
and
then
to
be
transformed
mln
a
Cll-homoterpene
(4,8-dimethyl-l,3,7-nonatriene)
which
■Himels
predatory
insects
[85].
4,8
-Dimethyl
-1
,3,7-nonatriene
Among
the
acyclic
species,
two
compounds
are
well
known
for
11
и
и
importance
in
invertebrate
endocrinology.
One,
methyl
i
и
nesoate
is
now
considered
as
the
crustacean
juvenile
hormone
[86]
Hui
is
synthesized
by
the
mandibular
organs
and
is
present
in
the
In
molymph.
Its
structure
is
nearly
identical
to
the
other
one,
the
in
eel
juvenile
hormone
III
which
regulates
metamorphosis
and
и
production.
Both
are
synthesized
from
farnesoic
acid
in
the
corpora
al
lnl
a
.
Farnesoic
acid
has
been
determined
to
be
the
autoregulatory
■iilislaiice
involved
in
the
regulation
of
the
morphological
transition
https://t.me/med1917
of
the
yeast
Candida
albicans
between
a
budding
form
and
a
multicellular
invasive
filamentous
form[87].
This
transformation
has
been
postulated
to
contribute
to
the
virulence
of
this
organism.
These
findings
might
have
medicinal
value
in
the
development
of
anti
fungal
therapies.
Farnesoic
acid
Methyl
farnesoate
Cyclic
compounds
Abscisic
acid
plays
a
key
role
in
plants
in
the
regulation
stomatai
closure
by
regulating
ion
channel
activities
and
we
exchanges
across
the
plasma
membrane
of
guard
cells.
Abscisic
acid
Cyclic
ADP-ribose
(cADPR)
has
been
signaling
of
abscisic
acid
in
the
drought-stress
shown
to
mediate
response
leading
to
https://t.me/med1917
Соседние файлы в папке Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана