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(Charaksamhita, Shushrut samhita, etc.), Chinese, and Egyptian literature can provide several
new directions for research and development. Today, the research communities have realized
the great potential for research in plants and herbs, as it has many untouched areas which
have wide scope for future medical research in the next decades. Approximately, 50% of
drug molecules approved from 1981 to 2006 are having natural origins and today about
25% of drugs and their derivatives are obtained from natural recourses [4]. Presently,
many scientific institutions are now doing extensive research to develop and present these
medicines in a more acceptable form. More specifically the incor poration of herbs with nano-
technology is a new look which has very much potential for the development of herbal nano-
medicines. It will not only incorporate silent features of nature but also give ample
opportunity to develop cost-effective, safe herbal medicines for different diseases.
2. Phytomedicines
Phytomedicines are having a vital role as drugs since ancient times. Many types of
research revealed that phytomedicines provide better therapeutic activity and show very
less side effects as compared to allopathic medicines. Biopharmaceutical, pharmacological,
and pharmacokinetic studies of phytoconstituents show less effectiveness in in vivo studies
due to their inappropriate molecular size, poor water solubility, and lipophilicity. Therefore,
nanotechnology-based solutions for such phytomedicines provide effective future prospects
for developing novel herbal formulations, which not only improve the pharmacological activ-
ity and bioavailability of phytoconstituents but also provide protection from physical and
chemical degradation.
3. Nanotechnology-based herbal product development and value addition
In 1979, scientists of the Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (Jammu) first time coined
the term “bioenhancer” as they discovered and validated piperine as the first bioavailability
enhancer. The director of the institute Dr. C. K. et al. listed a large number of ancient Indian
Ayurvedic formulations and found that out of the 370 formulations, about 210 formulations
contain either Trikatu or Piper longum which is an ingredient of Trikatu. On this basis, a new
working hypothesis was made that Trikatu which contains black pepper (Piper nigrum), long
pepper (P. longum), and ginger (Zingiber officinale) increased the efficacy of formulations.
Later on, these ingredients were studied with many drugs and found that P. longum increased
the bioavailability of several drugs.
As described earlier, nowadays, researchers are trying to develop value-add ed products of
plant origin with ensured quality and safety parameters like the release of active ingredients,
improved solubility, minimum toxicity and degradation, improved taste, and better control
over absorption and biological response. Plant extracts mo stly contain flavonoids, tannins,
and terpenoids as main components and therefore offer challenges in the development of
pharmaceutical formulations as most of them are highly water-soluble so they have a very
low absorption window as well as they cannot cross the lipid membrane. Further, they
also have a very large molecular size and all these factors result in poor bioavailability.
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This challenge can be overcome by the incorporation of modern nanotechnology which may
become a game-changer step in the field of medical research [5]. Nanosystems like polymeric
nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, nanoballoons, liquid crystal systems, precursors systems
for liquid crystals, microemulsions, and liposomes are the new hope in this area where ad-
vantages of dual loading of active drug and bioenhancer could be utilized together (Fig. 8.1).
3.1 Bioavailability enhancement
A large number of herbal dr ugs and herbal extracts are showing impressive in-vitro activ-
ity but fail to establish in-vivo correlation due to solubility and permeability issues. To
address these issues, drug delivery of herbal formulation can be modified by using novel car-
riers such as nanoparticles, transferosomes, microspheres, liposomes, ethosomes, lipid-based
systems, etc. These nanophytomedicines are capable of transporting the drug to the site of
action; hence it influences the accumulation of therapeutic compounds at the desired site
and minimizes the side effects at undesired locations. These novel approaches impart valu-
able addition to the herbal formulations by establishing a balance between the physicochem-
ical properties and pharmacological action. A bioenhancer which is an agent capable of
enhancing bioavailability could be added to these nanosystems to enhance the bioavailability.
Other miscellaneous enhancement approaches include absorption enhancement, prodrugs,
dosage form, and other pharmaceutical approaches such as the use of p-glycoprotein
inhibitors.
In recent years, many phytomedicines are considered as “wonder drugs of the future” as
they have great potential to cure many diseases; however, low bioavailability of these phy-
toconstituents limits their therapeutic effects [6]. For example, curcumin is a natural com-
pound of Curcuma longa L. It is known to have the ability to treat various incurable
diseases as preclinical and clinical studies reported that it has antiinflammatory, antioxidant,
anticancer, hepatoprotective, and neurop rotective properties. It has been found very safe dur-
ing phase I clinical trials with oral administration of large dose curcumin (dose 12 g/day);
FIGURE 8.1 Schematic presentation depicting nanocarriers used for phytopharmaceuticals.
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however, due to less bioavailability, only a trace amount of the drug has been detected in the
blood samples. It has low water solubility and also it degrades in the gastrointestinal environ-
ment followed by rapid metabolism and high systemic elimination. Therefore, many
nanotechnology-based approaches have been applied to overcome these limitations of curcu-
min and improve bioavailability [6e8]. The development of nanocarriers for curcum in can
improve pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, stability, targeted delivery, and better control
over drug release [9].
In a study, Oliveira et al. [10] developed curcumin-based mucoadhesive microparticles
which not only improved physicochemical characteristics but also the formulation did not
show any in vitro toxicity. In another study, Kumar et al. [11] developed polymer lipide
based curcumin nanocarrier delivery for tumor treatment [12]. Hou et al. [12] fabricated
curcumin-loaded poloxamer188-based nanoparticles which were found extremely stable in
different conditions along with water solubility of curcumin. Recently, Wei et al. [13] devel-
oped curcumin-loaded nanoparticles with pH-responsive cyclodextrin derivative and re-
ported that the formulations exerted an excellent anticancer effect in tumor-bearing mice.
3.2 Stability issues related to herbal products
Marinating stability is one of the major challenges with herbal products. It requires expert
knowledge and specialized skills to deal with a number of factors that can affect the shelf life
of the product. One of the important factors that affects the stability of nano herbal medicines
is the complex nature of extracts as they contain various chemically active constituents such
as alkaloids, terpenoids, and flavonoids. In many cases, herbal medicines are not showing
in vivo and in vitro correlation; in fact, they show very good in vitro activity but are unable
to impart the same in in vivo tests. This happens due to incompatibility with different in vivo
factors like pH, enzymes, acids, and other body fl uids. Nanophytomedicine now looks like a
game-changer, as the stability challenges of herbal products can be addressed more efficiently
by employing various approaches of nanotechnology to herbal products. They help to
improve the physical, environmental, and chemical stability. These nanotechnology-based
products are also capable of reducing the interaction with the excipients and other drugs.
The determination of stability is an important issue in order to ensure quality and purity.
The stability studies are aimed at evaluati ng changes in the potency of herbals under specific
conditions of storage. Since herbal formulations consist of active constituents like alkaloids ,
glycosides, flavonoids, and tannins, and each of them has different stability issues, so when-
ever one has to decide the stability condition of the product; this factor plays a very important
role. Nanophytomedicine not only increases the efficacy of the formulation but also increases
the stability of herbal formulations.
The instability problem of herbal formulations can be minimized by using these tools.
• Determination of physical parameter
• Determination of impurity
• Identification and quantification of all metabolites
• Controlled storage conditions
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3.2.1 Different approaches used to address the instability
Maintaining the quality of herbal products during storage is an important aspect of ther-
apeutic action. The purpose of stability testing is to evaluate the capacity of herbal products
to retain their properties under specific storage conditions by exploring the formulation in
different cond itions like moisture, heat, light, oxygen, and various chemical, physical, and
packaging conditions. Nanophytomedicines are known as very useful tools for improving
the stability of herbal drugs as various types of nanoformulations have shown tremendous
potential for the same like liposome, bilosome, nanoemulsion, nanoparticles, cubosomes,
etc. The selection of the type of nanoformulation depends on the chemical and physical prop-
erties of herbal constituents, route of administration, dose, and desired therapeutic response
(Table 8.1)
The testing of stability needs appropriate methods. Normally, the stabilities of nanophyto-
formulations can be determined by analyzing the properties that are susceptible to storage
conditions and including physical (organoleptic characteristics and particle size, etc.), chem-
ical (assay, pH, identification, etc.), and toxicological and microbiological properties. Pres-
ently, most countries are using their own regulation for stability testing. The development
of common ICH guidelines for nanophytomedicines is still under process. The development
of ICH guidelines requires sharing of national experience and information related to the sta-
bility studies of such formulations. Vital research is also going on related to the development
of stability and analytical methods for nanophytomedicines.
TABLE 8.1 List of some reports describing applications of nanomedicine in stability improvement of
phytoconstituents.
S.
No. Phytoconstituents
Nanocarriers for
improved stability Remarks References
1. Resveratrol Liposomes Improves stability [14]
2. Murva Chitosan nanoparticles Enhances the stability and
bioavailability,
No sign of aggregation and no color
change
[55]
3. Phenolic compound from sour
cherry pomace
Macro and
nanosuspension
Improves the storage and stability of
phenolic compound
[15]
4. Quercitin PLA
(poly-d,I-lactide)
Nanoparticles Shows higher stability than quercitin [16]
5. Prosopis fracta fruits Platinum nanoparticles Improves colloidal stability [17]
6. Artemisinin Nanoencapsulation Improves stability [18]
7. Paclitaxel Nanoparticles Paclitaxel nanoparticles improve short-
term stability
[17]
8. Zedoary turmeric oil Nanoparticles Improves stability and drug loading [56]
9. Glycyrrhizic acid Lipid nanoparticles Enhances physiological stability [12]
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3.3 Approaches for shelf-life improvement
Numerous techniques of nanotechnology are employed fo r the stability improvement of
herbal products. The loading of phytomedicines into nanomedicine provides protection for
phytoconstituents from oxidation, hydrolysis, and environmental degradation. The selection
of the technique of nanotechnology for self-life enhancement depends upon the chemical and
physical characteristics of phytoconstituents [19]. In nanophytoformulation development,
mostly polymeric nanoparticles (nanospheres, nanocapsules), liposomes (protection from
enzymatic degradation), proliposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, and nanoemu lsions have
been used. Nanocarriers provide storage stability improvement along with in vivo enzymatic
and biochemical degradation. For example, the incorporation of plant extract of Prosopis fracta
fruits with platinum nanoparticles increases their colloidal stability.
A nano-based drug delivery system of paclitaxel was developed containing chitosan and
glyceryl monooleate and was found more effective than conventional preparation [17]. Luca
et al. [15] prepared micro and nanosuspension of phenolic powder extracted from sour cherry
pomace which improved the st orage stability of the phenolic compounds. In the case of herbal
drug formulations, it is important that phytoconstituents remain stable during their shelf life.
A large number of phytoconstituents are physically and chemically unstable and may degrade
during the processing and storage due to various factors like light, heat, oxygen, or prooxi-
dants. It is also evident that in many cases the instability affects the biological activity of the
formulation. A number of approaches of nanophytomedicines are employed to overcome
the physical and chemical instabilities. For example, chitosan nanoparticles of Murva showed
no aggregation and hence showed improved stability and bioavailability. Quercitin-loaded
PLA par ticles showed higher stability than quercitin alone. Nanotechnological approaches
are also employed to enhance the stability of aromatic oils. The clinical application of essential
oil is very limited due to its stability issue which is extremely low and highly affected by envi-
ronmental conditions like temperature and light. In addition, the volatility of essential oils also
makes them complex for formulation development and storage. Nanotechnological ap-
proaches like the encapsulation of these oils into suitable nanoparticles have been very useful
tools to overcome the instability problem of essential oils.
3.4 Marketing herbal product
In recent years, enormous research and development are going on for developing nano-
phytomedicines capable of successful delivery of drugs to their target sites. Although it offers
a long range of benefits, however development and marketing of the herbal products have
never been an exciting avenue for pharmaceutical companies, even some decades back phar-
maceutical companies were reducing investments in research and development of herbal
products because of challenges associated with the biocompatibility and toxicity of natural
compounds present in herbal medicine (Fig. 8.2). Consequently, many natural compounds
are not clearing the clinical trial phase 1 or 2. In recent years, nanotechnology-based research
has provided new hope for product development scientists, as it has great potential to over-
come various issues related to herbal products. As of now more than 300 companies are
involved in the development and manufacturing of nano-based herbal products of which
about 250 are small and medium enterprises and about 40 major pharmaceutical companies
have their products on market or working on the nanophytomedicines-based projects. In
2004, there were about 38 nanotechnology-based products in the market with estimated sales
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of EUR 5.4 billion and now up to 2025, it is estimated that the total market of nanomaterials
may reach up to 100 billion. In the current scenario, about 51 nano -based products are in clin-
ical trials. FDA is also regulating some nano-based products including 18 chemotherapeuti c
agents, 15 antimicrobial, 28 antipsychotics for the immune system, and 30 other nucleic acide
based therapies.
However, still, there is no clear regulatory framework for these value-added products and
sometimes innovation in this emerging field is faster than the efforts by the regulatory bodies
because of the complexity of the nanophytomedicines and lack of harmonization of regula-
tions [20]. Recently many significant efforts have been made worldwide related to developing
test guidelines and analysis for labeling of nanomaterials and safety assessment [21]. Howev-
er, for the development of a uniform framework, it needs global collaboration. In this regard
in 2019, Global Summit on Regulatory Sciences was organized in Ital y coorganized by the
Global coalition for regulatory science research (GCRSR) and the European Commission
(EC) joint research center (JRC). At this summit, the exchange of the latest information on ac-
tivities of regulatory bodies was made in the area of nanotechnology applications in medi-
cine. Many discussions and directions were made on challenges and needs in this field as
well as on the application of new tools and methodologies in regulatory sciences, and it
has been revealed that for harmonization of methodologies there is a need of sharing data-
bases by all the regulatory agencies.
4. Nanophytomedicines
4.1 Particulate nanosystems for phytopharmaceuticals delivery
Recently, phytopharmaceuticals are being the preferred choice worldwide because of their
low side effects as compared to synthetic molecules [22e24]. Several phytochemicals such as
lycopene, leutin, quercetin, rutin, resveratrol, ferulic acid, and polyphenols have been encap-
sulated in nanoparticles for the management of many diseases. Modern
FIGURE 8.2 Pictorial presentation of different barriers for marketing of nanophytomedicines.
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phytopharmaceuticals deal with the scientific study of phytomedicine including pharmacoki-
netics, mechanism of drug action, site of action, and dose. It overcomes the lack of scientific
support and processing challenges of phytochemicals such as identification, extraction, and
standardization of herbal products [25]. Nano-based drug delivery systems are being used
for phytopharmaceuticals to achieve a high bioavailability and targeted drug delivery at
the disease site. Nanosystems used for this purpose include solid lipid nanoparticles, lipo-
some, niosome, transferosome, nanoemulsion, metallic nanoparticles, and polymeric
nanoparticles.
4.1.1 Polymeric nanoparticles
Polymer-based nanoparticles have been a preferred choice for drug delivery as their devel-
opment, modification, and engineering offer plen ty of options for developing a customized
carrier system for controlled release with full of scale-up feasibilities. Natural, semi-
synthetic, and synthetic polymers have been used in the delivery of phyto pharmaceuticals.
In a study, Manne et al. [26 ] prepared and investigated chitosan nanoparticles loaded with
Pterocarpus marsupium heartwood extract for biomedical applications. The prepared nanopar-
ticles were characterized by XRD, FTIR, DLS, SEM, and TEM as well as for in vitro drug
release and encapsulation efficiency. Furthermore, these chitosan nanoparticles inhibited pro-
tein denaturation activity and alpha-amylase inhibitory activity. The authors found that 10%
of plant extract-loaded chitosan nanoparticles showed suitable characteristic properties and
suggested that these nanoformulations could be successfully developed for biomedical appli-
cations. The grape seed extract is a rich source of polyphenols. In a study, Gibis et al. [27] pre-
pared chitosan-coated liposomes for encapsulation of grape seed extract and evaluated them
in respect to polyphenol content, in vitro drug release, and encapsulation efficiency.
Similarly, polyphenols-rich white tea extract was successfully encapsulated into polymeric
nanoparticles using polymers polycaprolactone and alginate [28]. These nanoparticles were
prepared by the nanoprecipitation method and were characterized for physicochemical prop-
erties including in vitro release and polyphenols encapsulation in the polymeric nanopar-
ticles. The authors reported a high antioxidant activity by the DPPH method and stability
of plant extract after loading into nanoparticles.
4.1.2 Lipid nanoparticles
Lipid-based nanosystems are popular carrier systems as they are made up of biocompat-
ible ingredients, possess high biodegradability, and serve as efficient and effective systems for
drug delivery [21,59]. These include liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid
carriers, and self-emulsification drug delivery system. Pomegranate extract is a natural prod-
uct having potent antioxidant and anticancer activity due to its polyphenol content. In a
study, Badawi et al. [29] prepared pomegranate extract-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles
(SLNs) for breast cancer therapy. SLNs were prepared by hot homogenization followed by
ultrasonication method and optimized by Box-Behnken Design with three levels and three
factors. Optimized formulations were characterized and evaluated for antiproliferative activ-
ity on different cancer cell lines including MCF-7, PC-3, and HepG-2. In comparison, the
nanoformulation-loaded extract was found 40 times more effective than normal extract. Au-
thors suggested that optimized nanoformulation is effective for breast cancer therapy.
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Similarly, Annona muricata fruit extract-loaded SLNs were prepared for breast cancer by Saba-
pati et al. [30 ]. SLNs have also been prepared for the delivery of Calendula officinalis extract as
an ophthalmic formulation for antiinflammatory, emollient, and wound repairing activity
[31].
4.1.3 Metallic nanoparticles
Metallic nanoparticles, which consist of metal and their oxides, have been synthesized by
physical, chemical, or biological (green) methods using biogenic materials or microorgan-
isms. In the synthesis of metallic nanoparticles via the green method, the main mechanism
involved is the reduction of metallic ions by phytochemicals present in the plant extract.
This green method of using plant extract is more popular because it is ecofriendly and
nontoxic in nature. Venkatachalam et al. [32] prepared phytochemical-loaded silver nanopar-
ticles (AgNPs) using Curculigo orchioides Gaetrn leaf extract for their antibacterial action and
cytotoxic activity against HeLa cells. Similarly, Jinu et al. [33] described a method for the
development of silver nanoparticles loaded with phytochemicals from aqueous extract of So-
lanum nigrum leaf for antioxidant, antibacterial, and antibiofilm against human multidrug-
resistant pathogens. In a recent study, resveratrol-loa ded gold nanoparticles were prepared
followed by surface functionalization with Arabic gum to enhance the stability of gold nano-
particles [34]. Authors found nanoparticles active against cancer cell lines such as human
breast (MDA-MB-231), pancreatic (PANC-1), and prostate (PC-3).
4.2 Vesicular nanosystems for phytopharmaceuticals delivery
Phytochemicals have potential therapeutic effects but are frequently not used due to their
limitation such as low absorption on-site, stability issues, and lack of standardization. Vesic-
ular nanocarriers are possible solutions for these problems because they improve drug
bioavailability, and stability, and are capable of encapsulating both types of drugs as hydro-
philic and lipophilic therapeutic agents. These vesicular nanosystems include liposomes, phy-
tosomes, ethosomes, transferosomes, and niosomes [35].
4.2.1 Liposomes
Liposomes are the most studied carriers in drug delivery [36]. In 1960, they were discov-
ered by Alec Bangham. Liposomes are composed of phospholipids and steroids, and are
spherical in the shape of about 50e450 nm in size. They are used widely in drug delivery sys-
tems as their structure is considered similar to biological membranes [37]. They are nowadays
being used for the delivery of phytomedicines. For example, Zhong et al. [60] prepared lipo-
somes of flavonoids breviscapine, which is extracted from Erigerons breviscapus Vant for sus-
tained release. As discussed above essential oils show antimicrobial and antifungal
properties, however, these oils are not easily bioavailable to the biological systems due to
their low water solubility and easy oxidation. Liposomal formulations of these essential
oils have been prepared to increase their stability and solubility [61,62]. In 2009, Liolios
and coworkers encapsulated thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, terpinene which were isolated
from Origanum dictamus L., in liposomes increasing their antimicrobial property. Marchese
et al. [63] prepared eugenol, isolated from clove oil, loaded with liposomes for its increased
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antimicrobial property. Li et al. [63a] prepared liposomes of curcumin derived from
Curcuma longa L. The liposomal curcumin was effective in reducing proliferation leading to
apoptosis of cancerous cells. Similarly, liposomal paclitaxel showed better anticancer activity
[64].
4.2.2 Phytosomes
Phytosomes are complex molecules composed of phospholipid and natural active ingredi-
ents. They are also called Phyto -phospholipids. Phytosomes increase absorption of herbal
extract or active principles of herbal extract. Phytosomes show better pharmacokinetic and
pharmacodynamic properties than herbal drug extract alone. Phytosomes increase the ab-
sorption of lipid-insoluble phytoconstituents through oral as well as topical routes. In a
study, Mazumder et al. [ 38] developed phytosome complex of sinigrin for its wound healing
and cytotoxicity activity [38]. Authors reported that the sinigrin-phytosome complex showed
better wound healing activity than sinigrin alone.
4.2.3 Niosomes
Niosomes can be defined as nonionic surfactant-based vesicles which result from the as-
sembly of insoluble surfactants in aqueous media. They have the ability to control and sustain
the release of loaded drugs. Niosome can entrap both lipid and aqueous soluble drugs. They
are increasingly being used for the delivery of phytopharmaceuticals due to their better sta-
bility, biocompatibility, low cost, and ease of preparation. Table 8.2 enlists some of these re-
ports with their remarks. In a recent study conducted by Moghtaderi et al. [43], the authors
found that Echinacea angustifolia plant extract when encapsulated into a niosome showed
promising antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant strains [43].
4.2.4 Transferosomes
Transferosomes belong to the flexible class of modified liposomes which are used for trans-
dermal delivery across the skin in general. They use osmotic force as well as hydration to
deliver the drug across the stratum corneum and improve their bioavailability through the
skin route. The major components of transferosomes include phospholipids (to form vesicle),
surfactant (adding flexibility), and alcohol (adding solvency). Due to these features, transfer-
osomes have been used for the delivery of phytophar maceuticals across the skin (Table 8.3).
TABLE 8.2 Summary of different scientific reports based on herbal drug delivery using niosomes.
Phytopharmaceuticals Biological activity References
Curcumin Increased antiinflammatory [57]
Neem seed oil Antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiseptic, and antiparasitic [39]
Black tea extract Sunscreen agent [40]
Rice bran bioactive Antiaging effect skin lightening [41]
Marigold extract Improved cytotoxicity, wound healing, and antioxidant activity [58]
Myrtus communis (myrtle) Improved antiseptic and disinfectant [42]
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For example, Xiao-Ying et al. [ 65] loaded capsaicin into transferosomes using high shear tech-
nique and found a higher degree of penetration into the skin resulting in better absorption in
comparison to free drugs. Curcumin, colchicine, and vincristine have also shown similar bet-
ter absorption through the skin when loaded into transferosomes [48,49,52].
4.3 Nanoemulsion for phytopharmaceuticals delivery
Emulsions with standard droplet sizes between 20 and 200 nm are known as nanoemul-
sions which have been used for the delivery of phytopharmaceuticals. On the basis of the na-
ture of phytoconstituents, it may be oil-in-water or water-in-oil type [53]. In the formulation
development process, the decision of the development of emul sion and type of emulsion is
based upon the physiochemical and biological properties of phytocon stituents. A hydrophilic
molecule shows less absorption from lipid membrane and hence it is difficult to achieve the
desired pharmacokinetics. Additionally, such molecules might have very large molecular
sizes resulting in very limited membrane permeability. This permeation could be further
improved by loading such bioactives into nanocarriers like nanoemulsion improving solubi-
lity, stability, pharmacokinetics, safety, patient compliance, reducing the dose, and achieving
targeted and controlled delivery. They could be prepared by encapsulating the active constit-
uents inside the lipidic core using different compatible excipients. On the basis of application
nanoemulsion can be divided into different subtypes (Fig. 8.3). For example, the application
of nanoemulsion for oral delivery is to improve the bioavailability and stability of the bioac-
tive in the acidic environment of the stomach.
Nanoemulsion also has the ability to control the release of bioactive which decreases dose
and side effects and increases patient compliance. Nanosized droplets also show improve-
ment in the pharmacokinetic profile of herbal bioactive as the reduced size of globules
TABLE 8.3 Summary of different scientific reports based on herbal drug delivery through skin using
transferosome.
Name of drug Category Purpose References
Diclofenac diethylamine and
curcumin
NSAID and
curcuminoid
Analgesic and anti inflammatory [44]
Minoxidil and caffeine Antihypertensive
vasodilator
Treatment of alopecia [45]
Sinomenine hydrochloride Alkaloid Treatment of rheumatism [46]
Curcuminoids Secondary metabolites Antiwrinkle effect [47]
Capsaicin Analgesic Increase skin penetration [48]
Colchicine Antigout Increase skin penetration [49]
Vincristine transferosomes Anticancer Increase entrapment efficiency and skin
permeationy
[50]
Quercetin Antioxidants Prolonged delivery of quercetin [51]
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