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traded medicinal plants, including Sonamukhi, Senna, Isabgol, Shankhpushpi, Ashwa-
gandha, Neem, Sadabahar, Kalmegh, Brahmi, Onion, and others, providing primary health-
care to 60% of the world’s population. These medicinal herbs are employed not just in rural
parts of impoverished countries but also in industrialised countries for basic healthcare. Me-
dicinal plants provide a fantastic alternative source of revenue, employment, and foreign ex-
change for small growers. Many traditional herbs have been demonstrated to have
therapeutic benefit and can be used to prevent, treat, or cure a variety of human ailments [33].
The worldwide commerce of herbal yield and the alternative medicine market’s portion of
the global economy are growing at a rapid rate of about 15% each year [34]. More than 1000
enterprises employ around 29,000 herbal compounds, with annual revenues surpassing
US$60 billion [34,35] with the majority of herbal products, or at least the raw material, coming
from biodiversity-rich nations in Asia, Africa, and South America. China’s yearly herbal
medication exports are estimated to be over 120,000 tons, compared to 32,000 tons in India
[36,37]. The global value of medicinal plant exports was estimated to be in the region of
$15 million. Increased concern about the safety and efficacy of herbal medical items has
come from the growing worldwide commerce of these goods [38]. Because of the increased
demand for these herbal yields, it is often assumed that there is widespread adulteration
in the raw herbal trade. Ma ny of these plant species are in poor supply because they are either
not cultivated or are rare in the wild [39,40].
3. Application of phytomedicine
3.1 Herbal medicine in the treatment of chronic diseases
The prevalence of many chronic diseases has increased over the last decades. Cardiovas-
cular disease, obesity, diabetes, urinary stone disease, asthma, and inflammatory bowel dis-
ease (IBD) are all on the rise, among others [41,42]. These chronic inflammatory diseases often
exist as comorbidities with common physiological manife stations, which both compound the
burden on patients and suggest common origins [43,44]. While a number of genetic and envi-
ronmental factors contribute to the manifestation of chronic diseases, an emerging hypothesis
postulates that dysbiosis, an imbalance in the composition and metabolic capacity of our gut
microbiota, increases the risk of developing other chronic diseases [45,46]. The aggressive B
cell nonhodgkin lymphoma termed primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) develops especially in
AIDS patients and immune-compromised patients infected with human herpes virus-8
(HHV-8)/Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus. Cucurbitacin B (CuB), a triterpene found
in plants of the Cucurbitaceae family, has several anticancer activities. With increasing con-
centration of CuB, the inhibition of cell proliferation of PEL cell lines (BCBL-1, BC-1, GTO,
and TY-1) also increased. Additionally, the apoptosis of BCBL-1 cells via caspase activation
takes place that is dose and time dependent. CuB caused cell-shape disruption by inducing
actin aggregation and suppressing the phosphor-cofilin level, resulting in BCBL-1 cell arrest
at the G2/M phase. Furthermore, the intraperitoneal injection of CuB (0.5 mg/kg) signifi-
cantly suppressed solid tumor growth in the xenograft mouse model. The researchers found
that CuB inhibited cell proliferation of PEL by causing apoptosis through actin aggregation
and disruption of cytoskeletal organization. Based on these findings, CuB is a promising
2. Worldwide health scenario from the perspective of herbal medicine research18
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chemotherapy drug for PEL treatment [47]. The stem and root of Berberis aristata are marketed
as Daruharidra in India. In 1988, the hypoglycemic action of B. aristata was discovered, when
it was given to treat diarrhea and diabetes. Berberine is one of its plant ingredients, which
shows hepatoprotective properties in rats, where cytochrome p-glycoprotein and P-450 con-
trol hepatobiliary excretion and liver metabolism take place. In the Chinese medical system,
berberine has been reported to be beneficial against liver fibrosis [48]. The B. aristata plant was
also utilised by Russian therapists to treat inflammation, high blood pressure, and irregular
menstrual cycles. Furthermore, it is also used to treat intermittent fever, neuralgia, and
menorrhagia as a bitter tonic, stomachic, cholagogue, antiperiodic, and others in India. The
plant is used to cure skin problems, menorrhagia, diarrhea, inflammation of the eyes, and
wound healing in traditional medicine. Additionally, the plant has also been used to treat
wound healing, skin illnesses, rheumatism, snakebite, menorrhagia, jaundice, and eye prob-
lems as a tonic, demulcent, diaphoretic, diuretic, and alternative [49]. Similarly, the metha-
nolic and aqueous extracts of B. aristata and Coscinium fenestrat um demonstrated
antiinflammatory activity in carrageenan-induced paw edema of rat model [50]. Sharma
et al. [51] reported that the root aqueous extract and hexane extract of B. aristata were also
shown to have antifungal action against a variety of fungal infections.
3.2 Herbal medicine in the treatment of acute diseases
Synthetic medicines are the principal agents of illness therapy for the vast majority of in-
dividuals living in the civilized world. On the other hand, the high dependency on synthetic
drugs causes these therapies to become ineffective over time. Furthermore, self-inflicted pre-
scriptions and unregulated handling of numerous synthetic drugs create cytotoxicity and
resistance in the patient’ s body. Therefore, HD has been a hot issue in drug development
research since 1980s [52]. Around 28 of the 252 drugs classified as “essential and crucial”
by WHO have a distinct plant source or herbal origin. The global market value of nonpre-
scription phytomedical products was $10 billion in 1997, with a 6.5% annual growth rate.
In order to identify potent therapeutic mediators originating from plants, medicinal formula-
tions from Ayurveda, Chinese medicine, and South American traditional medicine are now
being searched with passion [14]. The positive impacts of the phytomedicines have been
investigated by generations of people from many cultures. The Mexican floras such as Punica
granatum, Eucalyptus globus labill, Bocconia arborea, and Artemisa mexicana show great potential
toward wound healing and other illnesses [53]. A study into the Amazonian Aguaruna tribe
of Peru’s utilization of a mixture of natural medications provided a new lead against quinine-
resistant Plasmodium falciparum [54]. A better example is Huperzine A, an alkaloid that is now
being researched in China for the treatment of senile dementia. This phytochemical was
discovered in the moss Huperzia serrata, which is used to make Qian Ceng Ta, a Chinese herb-
al medicine that has been used for centuries to cure fever and inflammation [14].
3.3 Antiinflammatory agents
Inflammation is defined as process of cell defense system, which generally occurs in
response to infection, cellular tissue loss, cell injury, and cellular irritation. The inflammation
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belongs to the process of tissue remodeling and repair. Body discomfort, tiredness, arthralgia,
insomnia, myalgia, depression, anxiety, mood disorders, gastrointesti nal difficulties (consti-
pation, diarrhea, and acid reflux), body weight shift, and recurrent infections are all common
symptoms of chronic inflammatory illnesses [55]. The oxidation of molecules like nucleic
acids, proteins, and lipids occurs due to the reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS
and RNS) by activated macrophages and cause inflammatio n. The produced reactive alde-
hydes after oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids can permeate throughout the cell [56].
The synthetic drugs are usually not safe always, therefore, natural products have been uti-
lised for the treatment of numerous ailments since ancient times and thought to be safer
than synthetic drugs [ 57]. A variety of inflammatory illnesses have been treated with medic-
inal plants and their chemical ingredients. Alkaloids, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, glyco-
sides, carotenoids, and saponins are all plant-derived chemical elements that have been
shown to have antiinflammatory activ ities [58]. Curcumin’s (CUR) antiinflammator y proper-
ties are ascribed to its reduction of NF-kB-mediated IL-1b/TNF-a, lipoxygenase (LOX), cyclo-
oxygenase (COX), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) enzymes [59 ]. It stimulates the
generation of intestinal T-cells with a hyporesponsive phenotype by inducing dendritic cells.
However, CUR treated dendritic cells had reduced antigen presentation capacity, resulting in
less immunological activation [60]. Curcumin’sefficacy in alleviating trinitrobenzene sulfonic
acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in mice was tested, and the results showed improvement in both
wasting and histopathological signs in murine experi mental colitis, indicating that it could be
a useful treatment option for people with inflammatory bowel disease. As stated earlier, it
targets the NF-kB-mediated IL-1b/TNF-a pathway, making it an effective therapy for inflam-
matory illnesses including UC and Crohn disease [61,62].
Since ancient times, Zingiber officinale has been used for the treatment of degenerative dis-
orders (arthritis), digestive health (indigestion, constipation, and ulcer), cardiovascular disor-
ders (atherosclerosis and hypertension), vomiting, diabetes mellitus, and cancer [63].
Pharmacologically active phytoconstituents including 6,8,10-gingerol, 6,8,10-shagoal, and
zingiberine are found in Z. officinale. Among them 6-gingerol is preferably used in the treat-
ment of inflammatory illnesses, which demonstrated by its protective impact against
chlorpyrifos-induced oxidative damage and inflammation [64]. Using a human acute mono-
cytic leukemia cell line, the antiinflammatory efficacy of petroleum ether and methanol-
chloroform extracts of Z. officinale rhizome and callus were investigated in vitro. The
considerable reduction in proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-a, IL-1, and IL-6) and increase
in antiinflammatory cytokines IL-10 and transforming growth factor-b (TGF-b) levels suggest
that Z. officinale may have a role in inflammatory illnesses [65]. The anti-inflammatory poten-
tial of its extract was investigated in RAW 264 cell lines and female mice using in vitro and
in vivo approaches, respectively. Its additive effects on TNF-a, IL-6, and monocyte chemo-
tactic protein-1 production has also been reported. Furthermore, repeated oral administration
of squeezed extract prevented arachidonic acid-induced ear edema and elevated serum corti-
costerone levels, suggesting that its antiinfl ammatory efficacy was gradually enhanced [66].
The antiinflammatory and analgesic properties of Z. officinale extract were investigated in a
recent preclinical investigation by producing inflammation in the plantar fasciitis (aponeu-
rosis) of the hind limb of rats using an allyl isothiocyanate generated model. Z. officinale
also has antinociceptive and antiinflammatory properties, as evidenced by decreased paw
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thickness and volume, as well as an enhanced pain threshold. Binding to transient receptor
potential channels, primarily transient receptor potential ankyrin1 T (ankyrin receptors),
and transient receptor potential V member 1 (vanilloid receptors) is responsible for these ef-
fects [67]. A variety of in vivo (carrageenan-induced paw edema model) and in vitro (protein
denaturation inhibition, membrane stabilization, protease inhibition, and antilipoxygenase
tests) models were utilized to evaluate Z. officinale antiinflammatory capabilities. The reduc-
tion of rat paw edema and the downregulation of proinflammatory cytokines [TNF-a, PGE2,
IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, and myeloperoxidase (MPO)] suggested
that the antiinflammatory activity is mediated by inhibiting macrophage and neutrophil acti-
vation, as well as affecting monocyte and leukocyte migration [68].
Boswellic acid (BA), and its derivatives also reported to possess antiinflammatory, immu-
nomodulatory, anticancer, antiasthmatic, antiulcerative, antibacterial, and antirheumatic ac-
tivities [69]. The major cannabinoid derivatives produced from Cannabis sativa are
cannabidiol (CBD) and tetrahydrocannabinol. Because of their capacity to block toll like
receptor-4, these compounds are employed for neuroprotection, skin homeostasis, and antiin-
flammatory actions [70]. The increased paw diameter and volume in arthritic mice were found
to be reduced after application of CBD, suggesting its involvement in the treatment of inflam-
mation; however, the impact was not contingent on a drop in TNF-a level [71]. Additionally,
the downregulation of angiotensin-converting enzyme II gene expression by Cannabis sativa
extract showed that it might be a viable technique for lowering COVID-19 susceptibility
[72]. In LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages and 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene-induced
atopic dermatitis in BalB/c mice, the antiinflammatory effect of quercetin, galangin, and their
combination preparation was tested. When compared to individual medications,
a combination preparation dramatically reduced NO, iNOS, IL-6, TNF-a, and serum immuno-
globulin E levels, suggesting that it might be a possible treatment agent for atopic dermatitis
[73].
3.4 Antioxidant property
Various plants have been reported to have antioxidant, anticancer, antiobesity, antiather-
osclerosis, antirheumatic disease, antihepatitis, and antiirritable bowel syndrome properties
[74]. In Panax ginseng treated animals, biochemical markers such as superoxide dismutase
(SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione S-transferases (GST) were found to be much greater,
whereas MDA levels were significantly lower in renal tissue. Additionally, TNF-a, IL-6, and
CRP concentrations in the blood were decreased, indicating a protective effect against kidney
damage in diabetic rats, which might be related to the reduction of oxidative stress and
inflammation (Table 2.1)[91]. 6-gingerol’s antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties are
due to its ability to reduce NO, TNF-a, and caspase-3 levels. Superoxide dismutase, CAT,
and GST activity is also improved [64]. The major ingredient of Borago officinalis which be-
longs to the Boraginaceae family, is g-linoleic acid (GLA). DPPH scavenging assay/NO scav-
enging activity, murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cell, and human cancer cell lines
including liver (HPG2), prostate (LNCaP), and colon (HT-29) were used to investigate the
antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and anticancer activities of extracts. The extract can decrease
inflammation in macrophages cells to a limited level, indicating that it has mild
3. Application of phytomedicine 21
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TABLE 2.1 Preclinical investigations of plant extracts for various diseases.
Plant name Used part Extract type Target site Used to treat References
Semecarpus
anacardium
Nut Milk extract Suppress TNF-a, NO, and
myeloperoxidase activities
Immunomodulatory
and antiinflammatory
[75]
Leucas aspera Aerial parts Ethanolic extract Levels of CRP, TNF- a, and
IL-2
Antiinflammatory and
antioxidant activity
[76]
Salix nigra Bark Methanolic
extract
Reduce levels of
inflammatory mediators
(nitric oxide, TNF-a, IL-1b,
IL-6)
Rheumatoid arthritis [77]
Delonix elata Dried powder Ethanolic extract COX-2 inhibition Chronic inflammation [78]
Hemidesmus
indicus
Roots Hydroalcoholic
extract
Reduce serum CRP and
rheumatoid factors
Arthritis [79]
Euphorbia
Antiquorum
Latex Methanolic
extract
Bcl-2, increased bax, and
reduced cleavage of bid
Arthritis, diabetes,
antiinflammatory, and
antioxidant activity,
cancer
[80,81]
Cardiospermum
halicacabum
Leaves Ethanolic
extract
Antioxidant properties Rheumatoid arthritis [82]
Curcuma longa Rhizome Ethanolic extract Decreased MDA,
nitrotyrosine, and urinary
8-OH-dG, antioxidant
enzymes of SOD, catalase,
and glutathione peroxidase
activities, as well as
glutathione content,
increased
Liver cirrhosis [83]
Jatropha isabellei Underground
parts
Ethanol extract Antinociceptive and
antiinflammatory effect
Arthritis [84]
Withania
somnifera
Root Aqueous extract Reduce lipid peroxidation
and oxidative stress,
inhibition of NF-kB activity,
metalloproteinase MMP-8
levels
Antiinflammatory and
antioxidant activity
[85,86]
Sophora
viciifolia
Leaves, flowers,
and fruits
Ethanolic extract e Antimicrobial activity
and antioxidant
[87]
Zingiber
officinale
Rhizome Hydroalcoholic
extract
Inhibition of NF-kB
signaling pathway,
reduction of P-p65 protein
level
Antiparasitic,
antimiracidia activities
[88]
Matricaria
chamomilla
e Ethanolic extracts Antidepressant effects,
anxiolytic activity
Putative
antidepressant,
anxiety disorder, and
depression
[89]
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antiinflammatory and anticancer capabilities [95]. An enhanced lipid profile were reported by
Al-Okbi et al. [96]; where a mixture of B. officinalis seed oil, turmeric, and alpha tocopherol
were applied in male Sprague Dawley rats [96]. The antioxidant activity of the B. aristata plant
was investigated using an ethanolic extract. The experiment was carried out in diabetic rats
under strict safety conditions. It was discovered that the plant’s root extract reduced oxida-
tive stress [ 97].
3.5 Antineuropathic and antitumor activity
Rosmarinic acid is a polyphenol compound found in the plant Rosmarinus officinalis. The
antineuropathic activity of extracts on chronic constriction injury produced neurop athic
pain in rats was calculated. It reduced neuropathic hypersensitivity and protected nervous
tissue by preventing axon and myelin degeneration, edema, and inflammatory infiltration
in the sciatic nerve, indicating that it can decrease neuropathic hypersensitivity and protect
nervous tissue [98]. The antitumor activity of R. officinalis extract was investigated, and the
results revealed that the extract effectively suppressed colon cancer growth, migration, and
colony formation, suggesting that it might be a therapeutic alternative for colon cancer
TABLE 2.1 Preclinical investigations of plant extracts for various diseases.dcont ’ d
Plant name Used part Extract type Target site Used to treat References
Punica
granatum
Fruits Aqueous extract e Anthelmintic [90]
Ginkgo biloba Exocarp e Decrease Staphylococcus
aureus and MRSA biofilm
formation, reduce FPG,
insulin levels, blood HbA1c
Coughs and asthma,
antidiabetic,
antihypertensive
[72]
Panax ginseng 20(S)-
protopanaxatriol
(PPT), an active
ginsenoside
metabolites
e Inflammation-mediated
inflammasome activation
Antiinflammatory [91]
Allium sativum Bulbs Methanolic
extract
Antioxidant, metabolic, and
hepatoprotective effects
Acute myeloid
leukemia cells, cancer,
antioxidant,
metabolic, and
hepatoprotective
effects
[92]
Lannea acida Bark Methanolic Antimicrobial [93]
Eucalyptus
globus labill
Leaf Dichloromethane
and methanolic
extract
e Antiinflammatory
activities, antimalarial
activity
[94]
3. Application of phytomedicine 23
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treatment [99]. Furthermore, rosmarinic acid promoted the proliferation of oligodendrocyte
progenitor cells in the subventricular zone, as well as the downregulation of myelin basic pro-
tein and the loss of myelin sheath in the corpus callosum of white matter structure, thereby
alleviating cognitive dysfunction following perinatal hypoxia/ischemia injury by improving
remyelination in the corpus callosum [100].
The effects of quercetin on cardiovascular disease found it to be effective as a vasorelaxant
and antioxidant. Quercetin’s neuroprotective benefits were studied in transgenic AD animal
mice model, as a results reduction in b-amyloidosis and astrogliosis. Reduced paired helical
filament and enhanced learning behavior and spatial memory task further supported the
findings, indicating that it is an effective antiinflammatory drug [101]. The neuropharmaco-
logical effects of Camellia sinensis seed and leaf extracts on mice were further studied in
another investigation. To determine its efficiency, it was subjected to open field, head dip,
rearing, cage cross, swimming, and traction tests. This had a substantial effect on the central
nervous system (CNS) of mice, although the effects were stronger with seeds than with
leaves, suggesting that Camellia sinensis can be a powerful stimulant [102]. In 2018, Shan
et al. used the corneal neovascularization (CNV) technique to study the antiinflammatory ef-
fects of Glycyrrhiza glabra and glycyrrhizin in rats. Photographic analysis and histological ex-
aminations revealed that extract and glycyrrhizin-treated mice had less CNV, suggesting that
they might be utilized to cure CNV [103]. Withaferin-A, a key component of Withania somni-
fera, has anticancer properties via inducing cytotoxicity and upregulating the DNA damage
response [104]. The MTT test was used to assess the potential of Aloctin, another pharmaco-
logically active component derived from Aloe vera, against cancer in several cell lines. Aloctin
displayed cytotoxic effects, although the effects were more substantial in aloctin-imatinib
combination tests, suggesting that its anticancer efficacy warrants further exploration [105].
Similarly, the anticancerous activity of the methanolic extract of B. aristata plant was tested
against a human colon cancer cell line. The suppression of HT29 cells by a methanolic extract
was shown to be concentration-dependent [106]. Berberine was also reported to suppress
carcinogenesis triggered by 20-methylcholanthrene or N-nitrosodiethylamine in small ani-
mals in a dose-dependent manner [48]. Moreover, the oral administration of Aloe vera extract
showed potent antiinflammatory activity in complete Freund’s adjuvant arthritis, as well as a
decrease in TNF-a and IL-6 levels, as well as an increase in SOD, GSH, and CAT levels, sug-
gesting that it could be used as an antiinflammatory agent due to the synergistic effects of
decreased proinflammatory cytokines and increased antioxidant enzymes [107].
3.6 Antimicrobial infections
Identifying and isolating the chemical moieties responsible for a phytomedicine’s action is
the ultimate goal for any scientist attempting to develop an active phytomedicine. Earlier re-
ports suggested the antiprotozoal activity of alkaloid compounds (indolizidine, indole, iso-
quinoline) [30]. In 2008, researchers looked at the antibacterial activities of a Tamarindus
indica aqueous pulp extract against infections by Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Each extract included active components that were naturally occur-
ring alkaloids [ 108]. Extracts from Scadoxus multiflorus and Boscia angustifolia were discovered
to exhibit microbicidal effectiveness against Mycobacterium TB and Myco bacterium kansaii,
2. Worldwide health scenario from the perspective of herbal medicine research24
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respectively [109]. In patients being treated with chloroquine for Plasmodium falciparum-
caused malaria, a controlled clinical trial with a water extract of Cryptolepis sanguinolenta
root was conducted. Patients who were administered the extract had less side effects than
those who were given chloroquine. There were no reports of the patients returning during
this time [110 ]. Cinchona officinalis and related Cinchona species have already been used to
treat malaria with quinidine, quinine, cinchonine, and cinchonidine-containing extracts. Like-
wise, in methanol extracts of Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Erythroxylum monogynum, Ocimum sanc-
tum, and Adhatoda vasica, the antiplasmodial activity has also been demonstrated [48]. When
tested in S. aureus, P aeruginosa, and Corynebacterium, the herbal gel formulation including
B. aristata extract was proven to be an efficient treatment against skin infections [111].
Berberine, a component isolated from the roots and barks of the B. aristata plant, was shown
to reduce the secretory response of Vibrio cholerae and E. coli enterotoxins in a rabbit ligated
intestinal loop model and an infant mouse assay. In addition, cholera toxineinduced diarrhea
is inhibited by a crude dry preparation of B. aristata plant [48,112]. Therefore, phytocom-
pounds have now become a prime center for scientists to research. The list of plants with their
physicochemical properties to treat various diseases is represented in Table 2.1.
4. Research efforts on herbal medicine
As evidenced by enormous publications of scientific research papers, there is an increased
interest among pharmacologists, microbiologists, biochemists, botanists, and natural product
chemists, to explore medicinal plants for newer phytochemicals leading to discovery of drugs
for the treatment of several ailments [113,114]. Most of these research workouts cover the
areas of isolation, purification, bioanalytical methodology, and characterization of the bioac-
tive principles of phytocompounds. Furthermore, research efforts in herbal medicine are aim-
ing to elucid ate their molecular structures, and establishing their mechanism of action and
probable toxicological properties [115 ]. Because of the evidenced-based research conducted
on herbal medicine over the years, the 21st century is witnessing a paradigm shift toward
therapeutic standardization of HDs. Their efficacies have been supported and confirmed
through many in vivo clinical trials [116]. Consequently, many scientific proofs from random-
ized clinical trials have provided favorable outcomes toward the use of most of the herbal
preparations [117]. Furthermore, the Omic techniques have helped in understanding of mech-
anism of action of herbal bioactive principles, which have flagged the way for the moderni-
zation and standardization of several herbal medicines [118]. It is worthwhile to note that
novel approaches and current insights into herbal medicine research have made a great
impact on herbal remedies to compete enough in the mainstream biomedical science.
According to the WHO Regional Office of America, herbal medicine is used by 71% and
40% of the populations in Chile and Colombia, respectively. Complementary and alternative
medicine is expected to be used by about 46%, 49%, and 70% of the populations of Australia,
France, and Canada, respectively. Natural or herbal medicine is used by around 158 million
Americans [119]. Furthermore, many bioactive chemicals found in therapeutic plants are
extensively altered by chemical processes. Multiple glycosylation processes that constitute
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branch points within biosynthetic pathways frequently result in the creation of substances
from various subfamilies with distinct medicinal effects [120]. Sometimes one component
of a multi-herbal formula is recognized as an active principle; however, the combination
also contains other ingredients that are likely to trigger stimulatory or antagonistic effects,
which are critical for evaluating the formulation’s pharmacological action [121], but these
substances and their biosynthetic pathways remain unknown.
5. Safety and efficacy of herbal drugs
Pesticides, microbiological pollutants, heavy metals, chemical poisons, and adulteration
with traditional medications are all possible contaminants in herbal goods. Excessive or
forbidden pesticides, heavy metals, and microbiological pollutants may be linked to the
source of these herbal ingredients, especially if they were cultivated in a polluted environ-
ment or during harvesting. Toxic chemicals can result from unfavorable or incorrect storage
circumstances, as well as chemical treatment [69]. Research on the augmentation of beneficial
secondary metabolites of various medicinally significant aromatic plants (e.g., geraniol con-
tent in Cymbopogon martinii oil) is now underway in some Indian facilities, such as the
Regional Research Laboratories Bhubaneshw ar. This would undoubtedly persuade interna-
tional companies to invest in local medicinal plants. Recently, a clone of Artemisia annua
with a high output of the crucial antimalarial, artemisinin, was discovered [122]. Such
biotechnological technologies will be advantageous in supplying Indian pharma with stan-
dardized pharmaceuticals in bulk for commercial availability in the global market.
6. Conclusion and future prospects
Herbal medicine is rising in popularity among the general public since it usually has low
or no negative side effects, long-lasting therapeutic effect on human health, and is generally
cost-effective, even though the time of therapy may be slightly longer. The use of phytome-
dicines to treat various diseases is globalize as the pharmaceuticals now in use to treat them.
An increase in recommended therapeutic dosages has become essential, which, if used for an
extended period of time, might be hazardous to the patient’s health. The majority of the raw
materials (plants with medicinal properties) used in the production of herbal health products
are taken from forests, where these plants grow naturally as flora. Manufacturers of HDs
should supervise official cultivation of the needed medicinal plants to ensure the validity
of the materials utilized. They may also enter into buy-back agreements with farmers, give
them with validated seeds and appropriate agrotechnology in exchange for an advance pay-
ment, and then after harvest, purchase the entire crop. The her bal business must verify that
plants harvested from forests are authentically identified and classified, presumably based on
the amount of their active components, before using them for product development.
2. Worldwide health scenario from the perspective of herbal medicine research26
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Herbal yields are gaining popularity in the global market as a result of the negative con-
sequences of synthetic items. Despite extensive knowledge of HDs and the presence of a huge
number of medicinal plants, extensive research is still required to explain insights of HD in
disease treatments.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank University Grants Commission, New Delhi, and Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, New Delhi, for awarding fellowship to Anita Bhoi under Research Fellowship [F.No. 16-6(DEC. 2018)/
2019(NET/CSIR), dated July 24, 2019].
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