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did not show reproducibility in vivo. Additionally, phytomedicines are composed of second-
ary metabolites and are very demanding. Its therapeutic value depends on plant species used
and part of plant required for activity and geographic factors like the type of soil, time of har-
vest, area, storage condition, and humidity. This complex mixture of active ingredients needs
to be segregated into an individual entity for detecting its therapeutic activity. This can be
done by phytochemical analysis. According to literature reports, only 10% of overall 20%
TABLE 1.1 Key players in herbal drugs market.dcont’d
Manufacturer
Herbal
product(s) Active constituent(s) from plant source Indications
Potter’s Herbals,
UK
Memory and
focus
Comfrey oil
Bacopa monnieri
Brassica campestris, Symphytum officinale
To help memory,
concentration, and focus
Massage, sprains, and
bruises to stimulate blood
flow
Zandu
Pharmaceutical
Works Ltd., India
Zanosto
Zanacid duo
Fenugreek, veldt grape, Indian ginseng
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Osteoporosis
Effective acid neutralizer
and controls hypersecretion
of acid
Nature Herbs,
India
Organic green
tea
Camellia sinensis Antioxidants, controls
hypertension, sugar level,
gastritis, etc.
Tasly, China Danshen Plus Astragalus membranaceus, Dalbergia odorifera, ginseng Coronary heart disease
Kunming Pharma,
China
Pollen tea
Cordyceps
sinensis
Purslane, Houttuynia cordata
Cordyceps sinensis
Prostate diseases, sex and
urinary problems
Herbal tonic
Sanjiu, China Weitai granule Zanthoxyli, Scutellariae, Vladimiriae, Rehmanniae Dietary supplement
Himalaya Drug
Company, India
Guduchi
Arjuna
Tinospora cordifolia
Terminalia arjuna
Strengthens immunity
Heart disease
Hamdard
Laboratories, India
Safi
Sualin
Senna, Indian rosewood, Indian sandalwood, scarlet
eggplant, Terminalia chebula, Swertia, neem, holy
basil, Bacopa monnieri, chicory, Chlorophytum
borivilianum
Vasaka, licorice
Blood purifier, skin
diseases
For cough and cold
Patanjali Ayurveda
Ltd., India
Neem ghanvati
Curcumin gold
95
Neem
Curcumin
Reduce pimples or acne
and for treating several skin
diseases
Allergic condition and
inflammation
Surya Herbal ltd.,
India
Uralka Raphanus sativus Protects urinary system
1. Plant-based therapeutics: current status and future perspectives8
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phytochemical analysis platforms qualify for biological screening, and the rest fails, which
can only be identified through sophisticated techniques. With help of nanosized NDDS, it
has been possible to deliver herbal drugs with improved therapeutic activity and overcome
the limitation of herbal medicines such as low solubility, reduced absorption, and require-
ment of a large amount of dose to exert activity. Nanomedicines allow drugs to reach tar-
geted sites by surpassing various barriers restricting their delivery toward target sites [18].
This thriving area of nanophytomedicine seems too appealing and draws the scientific com-
munity’s attention toward the superiority it offers from other conventional delivery. As the
research community is more focused than before toward development of herbal drug prod-
ucts, we will now have to proceed with aim to deliver these active constituents into system.
Table 1.2 provides current overview of first small steps toward this direction.
TABLE 1.2 Recent research on herbal active constituents.
Compound Formulation Source
Type of
study
Membrane/cell line/
animal employed Outcome References
Luteolin Nanovesicles-
based gel
Fruits,
herbs,
vegetables
In vitro B16F1 cell line Lower cytotoxicity,
i.e., low IC
50
value
than free luteolin
[19]
Chrysin Nanoemulgel Passion
flower
In vitro A375 and SK-MEL-2
cell lines
Enhanced inhibition in
the proliferation of
tumor cells as
compared to free
chrysin
[20]
Rutin Liquid
crystalline
nanoparticles
Fruits,
vegetables,
buckwheat
In vitro A549 cell line Showed promising
antiproliferative and
antimigratory
activities
[21]
Berberine Nanoparticles Stem bark
and roots of
Berberis
aristata
In vivo SpragueeDawley
rats
Hepatoprotective
activity against CCl
4
toxicity
[22]
Quercetin Mesoporous
silica
nanoparticles
Asparagus,
onion,
berries
In vitro TG cell line No significant toxic
effect on TG cells
[23]
Resveratrol Microemulsion Grapes,
berries,
peanuts
In vitro Strat-M membrane Slow and steady
penetration of drug
into deep skin layer
[24]
Epigallocatechin-
3-gallate
PLGA
nanoparticles
Green tea In vivo Athymic nude mice Higher antitumor
activity as compared
to free drug
[25]
Piperine Nanocapsules Pepper In vitro Trypanosome
parasites
Enhanced
antitrypanosomal
effect than free
piperine
[26]
(Continued)
5. Future perspectives 9
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6. Conclusion
It can be clearly understood that herbal products are more reliable, affordable, and have
fewer side effects than their synthetic counterpart. This compelled researchers to screen
and develop phytopharmaceuticals to explore all dimensions associated with the delivery
of therapeutics into the human system. Despite having all advantages, there are some chal-
lenges faced in transporting these herbal moieties toward their target site. This is a link to
physicochemical properties of a drug like its poor aqueous solubility and large molecular
size. However, these properties can be further tuned in a certain way to make herbal moiety
druggable. Nanotechnology can be utilized in various approaches in the future to deliver
plant-based therapeutics more efficiently; recently, radiopharmaceutical and organ-on-a-
chip are innovative systems in diagnostics and treatment. Hence, plant-based therapeutics
will open a new era of drug therapy.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Guwahati, Assam, India, for
providing the necessary infrastructural support toward the compilation of this manuscript.
References
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2020. p. 1e36.
[2] Nirmal S, et al. Contribution of herbal products in global market. 2013.
[3] Mohamed A, Nguyen CH, Mamitsuka H. Current status and prospects of computational resources for natural
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[4] Süntar I. Importance of ethnopharmacological studies in drug discovery: role of medicinal plants. Phytochem-
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[6] Thomford NE, et al. Natural products for drug discovery in the 21st century: innovations for novel drug discov-
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TABLE 1.2 Recent research on herbal active constituents.dcont’d
Compound Formulation Source
Type of
study
Membrane/cell line/
animal employed Outcome References
Curcumin Microemulsion Turmeric In vitro SpragueeDawley rat
skin
Higher permeation
rate as compared to
CTAB-NCC
microemulsion
[27]
Baicalein Micelles Roots of
Scutellaria
radix
In vivo C57BL/6 mice Higher bioavailability
through inhalation as
compared to coarse
powder
[28]
1. Plant-based therapeutics: current status and future perspectives10
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[7] Newman DJ, Cragg GM. Natural products as sources of new drugs over the nearly four decades from 01/1981
to 09/2019. Journal of Natural Products 2020;83(3):770e803.
[8] Promotion of herbal cultivation in the country; February 14, 2022. Available from: https://www.pib.gov.in/
PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID¼1703485.
[9] Medicinal plants, phytopharma and other bioresources; February 14, 2022. Available from: https://dbtindia.
gov.in/schemes-programmes/research-development/energy-environment-and-bio-resource-based-applica-
tions-2.
[10] Shukla R, et al. Emergence of nanophytomedicine in health care setting. 2020. p. 33e53.
[11] Bhatt A. Phytopharmaceuticals: a new drug class regulated in India. Perspectives in Clinical Research
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[12] Andreas S. Botanicalsdchallenges abound, solutions in sight? Current Opinion in Food Science 2020;32:144e8.
[13] Chatfield K, et al. Applying an ethical framework to herbal medicine. Evidence-Based Complementary and
Alternative Medicine 2018;2018:1903629.
[14] Global Herbal Medicinal Products Market Size 2021. Industry share, demand for herbal products, future growth,
business challenges, investment opportunities, Covid-19 impact analysis, key manufacturers and 2027 forecast
research report. February 14, 2022. Available from: https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2021/09/
15/2297900/0/en/Global-Herbal-Medicinal-Products-Market-Size-2021-Industry-Share-Demand-for-Herbal-
Products-Future-Growth-Business-Challenges-Investment-Opportunities-Covid-19-Impact-Analysis-Key-.html.
[15] Herbal drugs market forecast, trend analysis and competition trackingdglobal market insights 2018 to 2028;
February 14, 2022. Available from: https://www.factmr.com/report/3314/herbal-drugs-market.
[16] Pan S-Y, et al. New perspectives on how to discover drugs from herbal medicines: CAM’s outstanding contri-
bution to modern therapeutics. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013;2013:627375.
[17] Kulkarni G. Herbal drug delivery systems: an emerging area in herbal drug research. Journal of Chronotherapy
and Drug Delivery 2011;2:113e9.
[18] Barkat M, et al. Nanotechnology-based phytotherapeutics: current status and challenges. 2020. p. 1e17.
[19] Kazmi I, et al. Formulation, optimization and evaluation of luteolin-loaded topical nanoparticulate delivery sys-
tem for the skin cancer. Pharmaceutics 2021;13(11).
[20] Nagaraja S, et al. Topical nanoemulgel for the treatment of skin cancer: proof-of-technology. Pharmaceutics
2021;13(6):902.
[21] Paudel KR, et al. Rutin loaded liquid crystalline nanoparticles inhibit non-small cell lung cancer proliferation
and migration in vitro. Life Sciences 2021;276:119436.
[22] Sahibzada MUK, et al. Bioavailability and hepatoprotection enhancement of berberine and its nanoparticles pre-
pared by liquid antisolvent method. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 2021;28(1):327e32.
[23] M.S S, et al. Preparation and evaluation of mesoporous silica nanoparticles loaded quercetin against bacterial
infections in Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Reports 2021;21:100808.
[24] Das S, et al. Microemulsion composed of combination of skin beneficial oils as vehicle: development of
resveratrol-loaded microemulsion based formulations for skin care applications. Colloids and Surfaces B: Bio-
interfaces 2020;194:111161.
[25] Kazi J, et al. Folate decorated epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) loaded PLGA nanoparticles; in-vitro and
in-vivo targeting efficacy against MDA-MB-231 tumor xenograft. International Journal of Pharmaceutics
2020;585:119449.
[26] Rani R, et al. Nanotechnology enabled the enhancement of antitrypanosomal activity of piperine against Trypa-
nosoma evansi. Experimental Parasitology 2020;219:108018.
[27] Zainuddin N, et al. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide-nanocrystalline cellulose (CTAB-NCC) based microe-
mulsions for enhancement of topical delivery of curcumin. Carbohydrate Polymers 2021;254:117401.
[28] Zhang L, et al. Poly (ethylene glycol)-block-poly (D, L-lactide) (PEG-PLA) micelles for brain delivery of baicalein
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References 11
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2
Worldwide health scenario from the
perspective of herbal medicine
research
Anita Bhoi
1
, Shradha Devi Dwivedi
2
, Deependra Singh
2
,
Manju Rawat Singh
2
and S. Keshavkant
1
1
School of Studies in Biotechnol ogy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukl a University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh,
India;
2
University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur,
Chhattisgarh, India
1. Introduction
Traditional medicine is defined as knowledge, skills, and practices based on theories, be-
liefs, and experiences from various cultures that are used for health maintenance and
improvement, diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of physical or mental illness [1]. The
knowledge of traditional medicine has developed over generations within vari ous societies
before the era of modern medicine. So, for the treatment of chroni c and acute diseases, these
traditionally used plants can be explored effectively in order to find new chemical entities.
Traditional medicines are also termed as indigen ous or folk medicines [2]. These are naturally
occurring, plant-derived drugs that have been utilized to treat ailments in local or regional
healing traditions with little or no industrial processing. World Health Organization
(WHO) revealed a survey report that world’s 80% of population relies on traditional medi-
cines for their primary healthcare requirements. Alternative medicine is getting more popular
in developed countries, and it is growing progressively because of its efficacy, safety, and lack
of adverse effects [3].
CHAPTER
13
Phytopharmaceuticals and Herbal Drugs
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-99125-4.00014-7 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://t.me/med1917
2. Herbal drugs
Herbal Drugs (HDs) are unprocessed, generally dried, but sometimes fresh plants, plant
parts, algae, fungi, and lichens used entirely or in fragmented form [4]. Herbal medicine
and treatment with herbs are not new to humanity, and it has been in practice since thou-
sands of years back and still in progression [3]. In the 21st century, HDs have been acclaimed
as a potential future medicine for the management of healthcare, owing to enhanced efficacy
in pharmacological effects of medicinal plants. These plants have been used as a source of
medicinal compounds for the prevention of illnesses and afflictions since ancient times and
are highly valued all over the world [5]. However, since the development of more predictable
synthetic medications with fast effects and simple availability, the use of herbal medicines
have dramatically decreased. Many poor countries, on the other hand, continued to profit
from the extensive understanding of herbal therapy. A huge majority of people still utilize
Siddha and Ayurveda medications in India, traditional Chinese medicines in China, Kampo
medicines in Japan, and Unani medicines in the Middle East and South Asia [6].
Herbal medicines are cate gorized as HDs with known active compounds, efficacies and
doses, HDs with known active compound and assumed efficacies that needs to be standard-
ized, and, HDs with established history of traditional use on a pharmacodynamics scale, but
unknown efficacies and active compounds [7]. Herbal plants have long been used in India’s
traditional medical system and are considered a source of traditional treatments. Appr oxi-
mately 6000 species of higher plants are used in traditional medicine [8 ]. According to
WHO, about four billion people utilize HDs as their primary healthcare or as a supplement
to conventional treatment [6]. The term herbal medicine refers to medicines in the form of
plant parts (such as roots, rhizomes, fruits, bark, leaves, flowers, stems, seeds, wood, or its
active ingredients), herbal preparations, or finished products containing these materials
singly or in combinations. Herbal medicine’s main advantages are lack of negative effects
in general, a long-lasting therapeutic effect, and, in some cases, cost-effectiveness [7].
2.1 Phytocompounds and its importance in herbal therapies
Medicinal plants are thought to be rich in phytochemical components, which are impor-
tant in the formation of novel drugs. For thousands of years, people have used these plants
as medicine without their scientific understanding or competent instructions. It has been
scientifically proven that every element of plants including roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
and seeds have therapeutic potential to treat wide range of diseases [9]. These plant parts
are associated with plant metabolites, which are organic substances and categorized into pri-
mary and secondary metabolites, and are responsible for the pharmacological actions of
plants. Primary metabolites (such as, starch, glucose, protein, polysaccharide, lipids, and
nucleic acids) are essential for the human growth and development. On the other hand, sec-
ondary metabolites (flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids, saponins, terpenoids, glycosides, tann ins,
volatile oils, etc.) are used as defense mechanism against biotic and abiotic factors. The sec-
ondary metabolites are referred to as phytocompounds that are attributed to medicinal activ-
ity. Due to the therapeutic properties of these pharmacologic ally active compounds, they are
preferably used in drug formulations [10]. Many human diseases, including cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes, malignancies, hepatorenal diseases, and neurological disorders, have
been reported to be decreased by the use of such molecules [11].
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Plants have various additional pharmacological properties for human usage, such as anti-
oxidant, antiparasitic, antibacterial, and antiviral. For instance, terpenoids have been reported
to have antiviral, antibacteria l, anthelmintic, antimalarial, anticancer, and antiinflammatory
properties; alkaloids, in particular, possess analgesic, antimalarial, and diuretic properties;
antibacterial and antifungal properties have been shown by glycosides; phenols and flavo-
noids have antibacterial, antiallergic, and antioxidant properties [12]. Identifying and
isolating the chemical moieties responsible for a phytotherapeutic action is the ultimate
goal for any scientist attempting to develop an active phytomedicine. In a phyt o-based
formulation, the active phytomedicinal principle may not always be a single chemical species.
There have been several reports of various formulations derived from various natural sour-
ces, and many of them have progressed or are in the process of discovering the active prin-
ciple [13,14].
Ayurveda, a 5000-year-old Indian tradition, is fast gaining international recognition and
acceptance, mostly as an alternative medicine. Because of their inherent safety and preventa-
tive efficacy, herbal medicine items and therapies are in high demand. Ayurveda and yoga
are gaining popularity across the world as a result of their holistic approach to health. Ayur-
vedic therapies derived from natural plants, herbs, and other sources have lately drawn
attention to HDs study utilizing modern science methods [15]. In China, about 30%e50%
of traditional herbal medicines have been used out of total drug consumption. Likewise,
the herbal medicines account for 60% as first line of treatment at home in Ghana, Mali,
Nigeria, and Zambia. It is estimated that in Europe, North America, and other developed
countries, more than 50% of the population have used herbal medicinal approaches at least
once in their life [2]. In San Francisco, London, and South Africa, 75% of HIV/AIDS affected
patients use herbal formulations. About 70%e90% of the population in Canada and Germany
has depended on herbal medicines for their primary health issues. It is believed that 158
million of the adult population in United States uses herbal medicines, and are continually
being increased. In overall, the global market for HDs stands at over US $60 billion annually
and it is growing progressively [2].
2.2 Herbal drug in global market
Natural plant products have now become the most preferred option all around the world ,
since they provide fresh chemical components. The commerce of such natural products and
their extraction, particularly from nonwood plants, has seen considerable increase at indus-
trial level in recent years. In a number of growing nations, increased commerce in natural
plant products has aided economic growth and poverty reduction [16]. Herbal products
are a diverse group of things that are manufactured, marketed, and utilised globally for their
predictable health adv antages. A total of 59% of 508 microscopically validated herbal prod-
ucts marketed in 13 countries were confirmed to be legal, while the remaining 41% were
found to be contaminated. Their com mercial titles are determined by their intended purpose
(medicines or foods), as well as the legal and regulatory frameworks in place [17]. The world-
wide market for herbal supplies was predicted to reach US $115,000 million in 2020 [18],
while the trade in medical plants will continue to increase at 15%e25% each year. According
to a global study of 6000 herbal products estimated to be sold in 37 countries, 27% of them
include unreported toxins, replacements, or filler species [19]. In 1997, Africa transported
2. Herbal drugs 15
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3500 tons of Prunus africana bark ($220 million) for the treatment of prostate illness. Likewise,
the use of Aloe vera to cure burns, skin-related diseases, as well as added to skin lotions and
cosmetics have huge growth in global market value [16].
Tribal communities make up the majority of forest residents. It is believed that 25% of the
population in most nations relies on the plant’s resources for their livelihood, and many of
those who live in or near dense forest rely heavily on them [20]. India is one of the world’s
mega-diversity hotspots, having a long history of traditional medical expertise. Only
250,000e500,000 plant species have been examined phytochemically for biological or phar-
macological activities in India’s 4.5 million plant species [21]. India is predicted to be among
the top five nations in the world in terms of absolute revenue growth. The Indian pharma-
ceutical market has grown by more than 200% since 2005, from a US$6 billion to 20 billio n
markets in 2015 [16]. A wide variety of higher plants are still being investigated as potential
sources of novel medicines. The incorporation of phytomedi cine into a variety of healthcare
products looks to be promising, economic, and safe. However, many plant extracts are more
efficient than their manufactured products, with no or few adverse effects [6]. Natural plant
products appear to have a substantial part in the livelihoods of the world’s rural populations,
according to studies. In many nations, natural plant products constitute the primary source of
income for the forest-dwelling population. Natural plant products can help a country’s econ-
omy growth with its high trading status at the global, national, and regional levels [16].
Ayurveda is a way of understanding human health that is frequently referred to as the
“mother of all healings.” The ancient mythology Rigveda and Ayurveda indicates the usage
of medicinal herbs in India that originated around 3500 BCEe1800 BCE, which described
several plants with varied properties. Herbal drugs define herb as a plant or plant component
used to manufacture medication or a form of medicine that employs plant roots, stems,
leaves, blossoms, or seeds to promote health, prevent disease, or treat illness [22]. Traditional
knowledge is linked to all therapeutic systems across the world, either directly or indirectly.
The need for herbal medications has raised dramatically in recent years, owing to side effects,
inadequate efficacy against chronic illnesses, and rising microbial resistance to synthetic phar-
maceuticals [23]. Traditional medicinal knowledge is responsible for approximately 75% of
natural drugs accessible on the wo rldwide market today. Around 70% of current medications
in India are either derived from natural sources or synthetically modified phytochemicals
found in nature [24]. Overexploitation of medicinal and other commercial plants may result
in a reduction in natural resource availability, which will have an impact on animals, partic-
ularly cattle. The increasing contamination and intentional misrepresentation of raw material
in worldwide comm erce is alarm for Ayurvedic manufacturing. Many researchers have sug-
gested that the additives in raw materials may possess negative consequences on human
health [19]. Mostly, chemical additives are provided with these herbs, which partially or
completely contaminate the drug. As a result, these poor-quality drugs found in the market
have little therapeutic benefit. Additionally, drugs made with replaced herbs and chemicals
are not only ineffective but can also have dangerous negative effects. The analysis of deoxy-
ribonucleic acid (DNA) bar coding reported that over 20% of raw pharmaceuticals are
contaminated, and roughly 6% of drugs are produced from wholly different plants with
completely different medicinal and toxicological characteristics [25]. Therefore, plants listed
in old classical books should be investigated using current scientific methodologies and
used in the field of healthcare. With the aims of safety, efficacy, and quality in mind,
2. Worldwide health scenario from the perspective of herbal medicine research16
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Ayurvedic system’s continuing growth is assisted to preserve medical heritage, and it encour-
ages the use of natural products in healthcare [26]. Herbal medicine has become a hallmark
for the identification of Ayurvedic knowledge. In recent decades, there has been a big move-
ment in Ayurveda’s worldview, as well as a significant shift in scholars’ perspectives on its
application.
India is a big supplier of medicinal plants to a number of industrialised countries across
the globe. India exports over $860 billion worth of raw materials and pharmaceuticals
derived from medicinal plants [27]. The worldwide medicinal plant market is seeing consid-
erable economic growth thanks to a growing interest in herbal-based medi cations from inter-
national pharmaceutical corporations and domestic producers [28]. The vast and beautiful
Indian flora is a treasure trove of medicinal herbs. Traditional medicine employs around
10% of the 250e750 thousand species of higher plants that exist on the planet. Th ere are
around 16,000 species of higher plants estimated to exist in India, with roughly 7500 of
them being utilized for healthcare by distinct ethnic groups. In Indian system of medicine
and ethnobotany, more than 2500 plant species with therapeutic benefit have been carefully
recorded [29]. Therapeutic plants have recently attracted a lot of attention since their usage in
ethnomedicine for common ailments including colds, fevers, diarrhea, cough, and other me-
dicinal claims is now backed up by scientific data [30]. The Indian pharmaceutical is one of
the world’s most productive sectors, delivering more than half of worldwide demand for vac-
cines, 40% of generic demand in the United States, and 25% of all drugs in the United
Kingdom. Pharmaceutical exports are predicted to reach US $16.28 billion in fiscal year
2020, despite the fact that the industry still exhibits more relevant values in terms of produc-
tion quantity than production turnover [31].
2.3 Trade of medicinal plants: Indian scenario/Asian continent scenario
India is the world’s second-largest exporter, behind China, accounting for over 13% of
global exports. India’s main market for medicinal plants is United States, which accounts
for half of all exports. According to the Government of India, there are approximately 8000
kinds of medicinal plants growing in India, with 70% of them found in the tropical fo rests
of the Western and Eastern Ghats. In its 1997 report, the Export-Import Bank of India esti-
mates that medicinal plant e related commerce in India is worth $5.5 billion and expanding
rapidly. Despite a significant pace of development in the medical plant and product industry,
India’s share of the global medicinal plant products market is quite small, at only 2.5%. Ex-
ports are growing at a higher rate than domestic sales. The export, however, is in the form of
plants or portions of plants, not as value-added products [16].
According to the India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), in 2014 the domestic Indian phar-
maceutical business was valued at $26 billion that has been up about 20% from the previous
year and is predicted to reach nearly $50 billion by 2020. Over 200 firms are creating drugs for
the world’s biggest population. The continuous population growth in developing countries
like India has led to the worry about fulfilling daily food and medication demands, since soci-
ety’s economies and livelihoods are heavily based on forest products. As a result, the ongoing
degradation of forests and forest products makes it difficult to fulfill the demands while also
conserving valuable natural resources. According to Moghaddam et al. [32], the bulk of me-
dicinal plants are produced in the arid and semi-arid regions. India tops the list of main
2. Herbal drugs 17
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