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TABLE 7.2 Novel formulations for herbal drug delivery.dcont’d
Delivery system Composition of formulation Herbal/bioactive Purpose References
Self
nanoemulsifying
drug delivery
system
Castor oil, Cremophor EL, Tween 80,
propylene glycol, diethylene glycol
monoethyl ether, poly
[dimethylsiloxane-co(3-(2-(2-
hydroxyethoxy) ethoxy) propyl)]
methylsiloxane (PDMSHEPMS)
Passiflora ligularis In this work, the hypoglycemic activity of
P. ligularis leaves extract (PLE) loaded in a self-
emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) was
evaluated. The results showed PLE-SEDDS
improved hypoglycemic activity compared to
the unformulated extract.
[104]
Self
microemulsifying
drug delivery
Tween 20, Tween 80, castor oil, corn oil,
rap oil, blend oil, sesame oil
Propolis In this work, a self-microemulsifying drug
delivery system (SMEDDS) of propolis
ethanolic extract (PEE) was obtained for oral
ingestion in order to improve propolis
bioavailability. The PEE-SMEDDS were tested
against fungus, gram-positive and gram-
negative bacteria and demonstrated were
effective
[105]
Tween 80, oleic acid, and propylene
glycol in the desired ratio were added.
Curcumin Curcumin self-microemulsifying drug delivery
system (SMEDDS) was obtained and tested in
murine depression model. The depression was
induced by bilateral olfactory bulbectomy in
which different behavioral parameters were
evaluated. It was demonstrated that Curcumin-
SMEDDS improved brain permeability and a
further increased biological activity.
[106]
Kolliphor EL (K-EL, emulsifier), PEG 400
(coemulsifier), ethyl oleate.
Bisdemethoxycurcumin In order to overcome the poor solubility and
bioavailability of bismethoxycurcumin
(BDMC), in this study, a BDMC-loaded self-
microemulsifying system (BDMC-SMEDDS)
was developed. The formulation was tested
in vitro and in vivo models. These assays
showed plasma concentration of BDMC when
BDMC-SMEDDS was administered increased
substantially as compared to the free BDMC.
[107]
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nanocarrier characterized by containing phospholipids, water, and a relatively high concen-
tration of ethanol (20%e45%) as a permeation enhancer, which confers ethosomes unique fea-
tures just as “ soft, malleable vesicles,” including high elasticity and deformability, allowing
them to penetrate deeply across the skin and enhance drug permeation and deposition.
Table 7.2 includes different research on ethosomes as potential vesicular drug delivery sys-
tems [84].
3.2.3 Niosomes
Niosomes is the name of non-ionic surfactant-based vesicles, originally disclosed as
cosmetic applications of nonionic surfactant vesicles by L’Oreal in 1975 [110] and Lancome
in 1978 [111]. These kinds of vesicles consist of unilamellar or multilamellar vesicles formed
when nonionic surfactants (mainly of alkyl or dialkyl polyglycerol ether class) are added to
cholesterol with subsequent hydration in aqueous media, cholesterol control provides more
or less rigidity within affecting permeability parameters. So, these kinds of vesicles are being
researched with great interest by biomedical approaches of their excellent behavior in encap-
sulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic agents, improving the bioavailability of biomol-
ecules, same as liposomes but expected to be better drug carrier system upon consideration of
efficiency, bioavailability, stability, entrapment, and cost. Different research vesicular drug
delivery systems based on niosomes are presented in Table 7.2 [110].
3.2.4 Phytosomes and transferosomes
Phytosomes were formulated in 1991 by Bombardelli and Spelta. They are micelles formed
by the interaction of phospholipids with the addition of bioactive constituents such as poly-
phenolic plant extracts in water conditions. The polar functional groups of the lipophilic com-
pounds conjugate through hydrogen bonds and polar interaction with the charged phosphate
head of phospholipids, forming desired micelles wherein phospholipids and bioactive consti-
tute complexes as an integral part. Transferosomes are a specific kind of phytosomes created
by attaching specific herbal extracts to phosphatidylcholine, resulting in a formulation with
increased solubility and, hence, better absorption, resulting in improved pharmacokinetic
and pharmacodynamic features of the entrapped drugs. Phytosomes and transferosomes
have consolidated vesicular delivery of herbal drugs through the skin as a unique lipid-
based nanocarrier for transdermal drug delivery [112e114].
3.2.5 Novel vesicular drug delivery systems
Vesicular n anocarriers are extremely organized assemblies of bilayers of lipid that may
be single or concentric in nature, formed when the building blocks (amphipathic) of these
bilayers encounter water. This system of drug delivery system can improve the bioavail-
ability of the drug and the reduction in toxicity by drug targeting the specific site. So, sphin-
gosine, a specific kind of liposome employing sphingomyelin as a phospholipid and having
amide-linked fatty acids rather than ester-linked ones, contains other capabilities that
include less susceptibility to hydrolysis, preventing their chemical degradation and there-
fore improving the drug circulation lifetime and the in vitro stability [115 ]. Other specific
vesicular nanocarriers are pharmacosomes, which are neutral vesicles c onformed by poly-
phenol and phospholipids including amphiphilic properties, and neutral z-potential but
with equilibrated positive and negative dispersed charges, so the drugs are incorporated
3. Nanocarriers for control drug delivery 179
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just in a dispersion form conjugated by electron pair sharing and electrostatic forces or by
hydrogen bond with lipids [116].
Invasomes are other vesicular nanocarriers, defined since the optimization of ethosomes
with a more specific relation of ethanol and terpene mixture obtaining better capabilities to
transdermal drug delivery systems [117].
Enzymosomes are just another kind of modified liposomes, consisting of incorporating
enzymatic activities over surfaces of nanosystems displaying enzymatic activity in an intact
form without the need for liposomal disruption [118]. In similarities, Archeasomes, another
kind of modified liposomes containing specific lipids, the sulfated lactosyl archaeol (SLA)
glycolipids, give the capabilities to stimulate both humoral and cytotoxic immune responses
when simply admixed with an antigen, increasing opportunities to the development of vac-
cines [119]. In similar conditions, virosomes are defined as other modified liposome vesicles
that incorporate viral proteins over the surface or reconstituted viral envelopes, having lipid
membrane and viral spike glycoprotein without genetic material, recently virosomes whose
surfaces are decorated with viral antigens are being in research by immune activity to
develop new vaccines, such as Inflexal V a commercialized virosome of inactivated vaccine
flu[120,121]. So, virosomes are getting increased biotechnological interest in drug delivery
systems and new vaccine technologies.
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), described around 30 years ago, were initially considered only
cell structures to dismiss trash, nowadays it is kno wn that EVs are essential mediators of
intercellular communication, enabling the functional transfer of bioactive molecules from
one cell to another, and more recently are being into science interest by the potential to
directed drug delivery, high specificity, and selectivity to arrive specific cells, and such as
they are membrane-bound vesicles released by all cell types, are being classified as Smart
Drug-Delivery Systems (SDDS), small molecules that can carry and release biologically active
compounds in a controlled manner to specific sites in the body, preventing the degradation
and increasing the stability of their content. Even more, EVs can avoid immune reactions and
improve distribution, increasing selective accumulation in specific biological targets with
homing selectivity. So it is possible to dream in to obtain EVs-based drug delivery systems
in bioreactors and green synthesis [122,123]. EVs include extracellular evagination structures
below 1000 nm in diameter, with a special interest in the research of Exosomes (see Table 7.3)
a kind of EV with diameter around 30e100 nm, each vesicle is enriched in proteins and is
highly enriched in cholesterol, sphingomyelin, and hexosylceramides at the expense of phos-
phatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine [123].
3.2.6 Inorganic nanoparticles
Many various types of inorganic particles of diverse materials, such as metallic including
gold, silver, or copper, oxides plus iron oxide, silicon oxide or copper oxides, carbon materials
such as carbon nanotubes, fullerene, or cyclodextrins, layered double hydroxide (LDH), sili-
cate mesoporous and calcium phosphates particles, have been studied to be employed as
drug delivery system (see Table 7.4). All of them must show low toxicity and controlled de-
livery properties, thus presenting new alternative carriers for the herbal compounds. Actu-
ally, scientific research has obtained an enormous group of Inorganic nanoparticles with
attractive, versatile properties suitable for cellular delivery, including wide availability,
rich functionality, good biocompatibility, the potential capability of targeted delivery, and
7. Application of nanomedicine for efficient delivery of herbal bioactives180
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TABLE 7.3 Other systems for herbals control drug delivery.
Name Description
Herbal/
bioactive Purpose References
Virosome Virosome of influenza A/H1N1, solubilization of
the viral membrane with 1,2-distearoyl-sn-
glycerol3-phosphocholine (DSPC) (membrane
solubilization and reconstitution method)
Curcumin The nanocurcumin encapsulated in the A/H1N1
virosome proved to be more efficient in controlled
drug release compared with nanocurcumin free.
The viability of MDA-MB231 cells was significantly
inhibited by nanocurcumin encapsulated in a
concentration-dependent manner in defined times.
[124]
Sphingosine Sphingomyelin from egg yolk Lutein The capacity of egg-sphingomyelin (ESM) vesicles
called sphingosomes to solubilize lutein into the
bilayers was investigated. This study highlighted
the capacity of new lipid carriers such as egg-
sphingosomes to solubilize lutein.
[125]
Enzymosome 1,2-Distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-
N-[maleimide (polyethylene glycol)-2000], egg
phosphatidylcholine an-d 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-
3-phosphoethanolamineN-[methoxy (polyethylene
glycol)-2000]
Asparaginase A new delivery system for asparaginase (ASP) was
described. The authors develop a covalent
attachment of AP to functionalized polyethylene
glycol (PEG) polymer chains in the outer surface of
liposomes (ASP-enzymosomes). The ASP-
enzymosomes obtained were stable at 4
C and
retained 82% activity up to 37 days. The results
showed that ASP-enzymosomes could be a
promising antileukemic drug.
[118]
Pharmacosome Folic acid, amino ethanol 2-
Deoxyglucose
A nano-pharmacosome was developed with folic
acid-modified 2-deoxyglucose (FA-2-DG). For this
purpose, it amino ethanol was used as a cleavable
linker. FA-2-DG was able to self-assemble, forming
nano-particles with diameters of 10e30 nm. The
results showed that the nano-pharmacosome
obtained can be used for targeting in a nano-drug
delivery system.
[126]
Electrosome Genes encoding dockerins of Acetivibrio cellulolyticus
and Clostridium thermocellum were cloned.
C-terminus of Zymomonas mobilis alcohol
dehydrogenase. Pseudomonas putida formaldehyde
dehydrogenase.
In this work, the authors present the electrosome as
a novel surface-display system based on the specific
interaction between the cellulosomal scaffolding
protein and a cascade of redox enzymes that allows
multiple electron-release by fuel oxidation.
[127]
Exosome Purified exosomes Curcumin In this work, the authors demonstrated that
curcumin could induce exosome/microvesicle
release in cellular models of lipid deposition. The
decrease in intracellular lipid deposition is mediated
by increased ceramide synthesis and exosome/
microvesicle release, which may be another of the
health benefits of curcumin.
[99]
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TABLE 7.4 Hybrid nanocarriers: organoclays, hybrid polymer micelle system for herbal control drug
delivery.
Hybrid nanocarriers: organoclays,
hybrid polymer micelle
Herbal/
bioactive Purpose References
Cellulose acetate, gelatin. Triethyl citrate
and thymol, silver nitrate, 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl, montmorillonite.
Thymol In this chapter, nano-biocomposite films
based on plasticized cellulose acetate/
triethyl citrate (CA/TEC) were obtained.
In these films, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)/
gelatin-modified montmorillonite nanofiller
(AgM) and thymol (Th) were incorporated.
The presence of clay aggregates improved
the tensile and oxygen barrier properties.
[128]
Modified halloysite, possessing a degree
of functionalization, thiol groups, heptakis-
6-(tert-butyldi-methylsilyl)-2-allyloxy-
b-cyclodextrin
Curcumin A hybrid material was developed for the
controlled and sustained release of
curcumin. For this purpose, the following
halloysite was covalently linked to a
hyperreticulated cyclodextrin network.
[129]
Chitosan, lecithin (ionic gelation method) Curcumin The aim of this study was to obtain hybrid
lipid-chitosan nanoparticles loaded with
green tea extract as a nanocarrier for
delivery of this anticellulite drug into
subcutaneous adipose tissue.
[130]
Tetraethyl orthosilicate, ferric chloride
hexahydrate, ferrous sulphate heptahydrate.
Curcumin - The immobilisation of curcumin on
silica-coated Fe
3
O
4
nanoparticles was
achieved to combine photodynamic
therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy
(PTT) for the treatment of breasts.
- The effect of Fe3O4/SiO2-CUR (NC)
combined with PDT and PTT was
assessed in-vivo on the breast tumour
mice model. The authors conclude that
the NCþPDTþPTT strategy might hold
a promising substitute for chemotherapy
for the treatment of breast cancers.
[131]
Ferrous chloride tetrahydrate ferric chloride
hexahydrate, gelatin and 1-ethyl-3-(3-
dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide
(Desolvation-co precipitation technique)
Curcumin - Curcumin was used as the model drug,
achieving a loading efficiency of
approximately 95%. The particles
showed pH-dependent drug release
behaviour.
- They also showed enhanced heat-
activated cancer cell destruction under a
magnetic field. under a magnetic field.
[132]
Iron (III) chloride hexahydrate, Iron (II)
chloride tetrahydrate Poly(lactic-co-glycolic
acid) (PLGA) (lactide:glycolide, 50:50, Mw:
30000e60000), poly(ethylene glycol)
2-aminoethyl ether acetic acid (COOH-PEG-
NH2, Mn:3500), 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-
aminopropyl) (Single emulsion solvent
evaporation method)
Curcumin - Superparamagnetic iron oxide
nanoparticles (SPIONs) were synthesised
and coated with poly (lactic-co-glycolic
acid)-poly (ethylene glycol) di-block
copolymer (PLGA-b-PEG). Subsequently,
curcumin (CUR), a potential anticancer
agent was loaded into the magnetic
polymeric nanoparticles.
[133]
7. Application of nanomedicine for efficient delivery of herbal bioactives182
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controlled release of carried drugs, nevertheless still today requires more specific studies to
confirm the complete security to be released as drugs giving opportunities to new research
approaches [134,135].
3.3 Hybrid herbal nanomaterials on bioimaging
There are several in vivo imaging techniques to perform noninvasive diagnosis. For
instance, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), ultrasound (US),
positron emission tomography (PET), or single-photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT) [14]. For years medicine has used these tools to make the diagnosis and, with it,
the corresponding therapy. Due to how invasive specific treatments can be, for instance,
chemotherapy, targeted and controlled treatment is essential to avoid therapy side effects.
In this context, multifunctional nanomaterials are emerging as a viable alternative for novel
in-situ therapies. Nanotheranostics are nanoscale agents affording both therapeutic and diag-
nostic functions (Fig. 7.5)[85]. Magnetic nanoparticles designed fo r theranostics can be simul-
taneously used as (i) contrast media for diagnostic and imaging follow-up, (ii) a therapy
when used for drug delivery or for hyperthermia, and (iii) a localized therapy, either active
or passive. The management of pathologies through theranostics not only includes high spec-
ificity for the diagnosis and treatment of diseased cells but also includes the monitoring of the
drug release process and its therapeutic efficacy [136,162e164]. The design of nanoparticles
and the choice of their functionalization agents have direct effects on the mode of action of
nanoparticles at the diagnostic, monitoring, and/or therapeutic levels.
FIGURE 7.5 Nanotheranostic agents and the types of bioimaging: ultrasound (US), magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission tomography
(SPET), near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF).
3. Nanocarriers for control drug delivery 183
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In the past years, Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) have attracted
more and more attention to physicochemical properties in biomedical applications, becoming
one of the most promising nanoparticles for use in theranostics due to their physical charac-
teristics, as they can be attracted by a magnetic field without aggregating to each other, which
allows these nanoparticles to be localized in a specific area of the body with the use of a mag-
net [137e139]. And their multifunctional dimensionality could be used in nanomedicine as
elective candidates for drug-targeting therapy [140]. The interest in SPIONs includes their
uses as contrast media for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are being used as alternative
contrast agents in MR imaging owing to their superparamagnetic properties and high relax-
ivity, doubled by high biocompatibility upon surface functionalization and low toxicity, un-
like the traditional contrast agent in MRI [141,142]. On the other hand, the interest in SPION
by hyperthermia consists of a therapeutic procedure that increases the temperature of a re-
gion of the body to 40e49
C, which, when submitted to an oscillating magnetic field (i.e.,
magnetic hyperthermia; MHT) or specific wavelength, which, when carried out at the tumor
site, is called oncological hyperthermia [143,144], a potential treatment by the low tolerance of
tumor cells to a moderate increase in temperature. This treatment has been successful in both
preclinical and clinical studies [145]. A polymer nanoparticle including a core of SPIONs can
be an excellent carrier because, in the presence of an alternating magnetic field, the SPIONs
can be heated by raising the local temperature, which would lead to the elimination of tumor
cells via hyperthermia and, at the same time, lead to increased degradation of the polymer,
causing a faster and more efficient release of the drug. In conte xt, the SPION ability to func-
tion as an excellent contrast medium for MRI permits hyperthermia can be performed by
knowing the location of the nanoparticles in the body and using them to evaluate the effec-
tiveness of the treatment [146,147]. Currently, several investigations have been carried out
with SPIONs functionalized for potential use in magnetic theranostics applications and mag-
netic hyperthermia. SPIONs synthesized with doxorubicin and conjugated with trastuzumab
(Herceptin) were shown to be a good contrast medium for MRI and to better inhibit tumor
growth rate compared with free doxorubicin and Herceptin [148]. Boubbou et al. [149] re-
ported that their synthesized platform of PVP-coated SPION loaded with doxorubicin getting
to be more potent than their bare counterpart when evaluated in vitro on MDA-MB-23 cancer
cells under external alternative magnetic field (AMF). In detachment, lung cancer is a
neoplasm associated with bacterial infections, which is the main reason for designing com-
bined chemotherapy and antimicrobial treatment. Due to adverse drug reactions, Solar
et al. [143] designed and synthetized polymer poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-
hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) nanoparticles loaded with SPIONs to diagnostic, and clarithromy-
cin and paclitaxel to perform chronic Chlamydophila pneumoniae (Cpn) and cancer treatments
simultaneously or preventing it by acting as a prophylactic for Cpn. Findings showed that the
spherical nanoparticles with diameters ranging between 176 19 and 222 68 nm were hy-
drophilic and had a net negative surface charge. These nanoparticles can be lyophilized and
resuspended in polar environments without affecting their physicochemical characteristics
and main taining their antibacterial activity. Both drugs interacted differently with the poly-
mer, avoiding competition between them and facilitating simultaneous encapsulation. The
paclitaxel loaded in these nanoparticles remains almost completely encapsulated during
7. Application of nanomedicine for efficient delivery of herbal bioactives184
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the first 24 h under physiological conditions, allowing its accumulation and release in sites of
high permeability and retention, such as tumors. In summary, these PHBV nanoparticles
loaded with clarithromycin, paclitaxel, and SPION are promising drug delivery systems
for use in theranostics against lung cancer.
Curcumin is widely considered beneficial to human health, but insolubility and instability
greatly hamper reproducible exploitation of the advantageous traits. Guerrero et al. [16]
reported on the development, characterization, and evaluation of a curcumin-loaded nanoe-
mulsion (CUR-NEM) that is highly effective in preventing post-surgery tumor reincidence
and metastasis. The method of fabrication utilized safe excipients and generated particles
of 200 nm (PDI 0.2) with negative zeta potential (30 mV) and a high yield of curcumin
(95%), which can be converted by lyophilization to a dry powder. In vitro assays showed
that CUR-NEM is safe in noncancerous human cells (HEK-293T) and preferentially cytotoxic
in gastric (AGS), colon (HT29-ATCC, HT29-US), breast (MDA-MB-231), and melanoma
(B16F10) cells. In addition, in melanoma cells, the nanoformulation increases intracellular cur-
cumin accumulation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation while preventing cell
migration and invasion. In vivo studies in C57BL/6 mice demonstrated that a single dose
applied topically to the wounded area after surgical excision of primary tumors formed
upon subcutaneous injection of syngeneic B16F10 cells was sufficient to completely prevent
reincident tumor growth and spontaneous lung metastasis, while in untreated animals
70% reincidence and metastasis were observed. In vivo experiments also showed that the
fluorescence signal due to curcumin was maintained at least 15 days after topical application
of CUR-NEM, while when administered in DMSO, the curcumin signal disappeared within
4 days. Importantly, the administration of a dose 22 times larger than that applied topically to
animals after tumor surgery did not alter biochemical parameters. Due to the safety and ef-
ficacy of the formulation, Guerrero et al. [16] envisage it as ideal for topical application in can-
cer patients following surgery to prevent tumor reincidence and metastasis. In addition, other
routes of administration/protocols could also be proposed to treat/prevent malignant tu-
mors in patients using herbal bioactives [16].
4. Conclusion and future prospects
Promissory research on herbal medicine for COVID-19 treatment (see Table 7.5) and nano-
carriers’ disciplines point toward developing phytotherapy to prevent, control, and mitigate
the current pandemic. Besides this, nanotheranostic traces a pathway for trapping and erad-
icate not only the mutated SARS-CoV-2 but other emerging and reemerging infectious
diseases.
Thus, the regulation and registration of herbal medicines and the training of primary
healthcare personnel (e.g., nursing) are indispensable for safe use. Beyond borders, establish-
ing an international program that promotes the incorporation of public health policies to
ensure production, safety, efficacy, quality, access, and rational use of both herbal medicine
4. Conclusion and future prospects 185
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and nanophytotherapeutic should be an international priority. The latter supports human be-
ings’ health and planetary health.
The above will only achieve to the ext ent that the United Nations (UN), the organization of
American state (OAS), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), and the World Health Organization (WHO) promote a global initiative on the
generation and dissemination of knowledge on herbal medicine as well as innovative nano-
technology strategies [155e157]. Ref. [16] strongly supported by artificial intelligence, quan-
tum mechanics, quantum computing, and quantum information [158e161]. Finally, we are in
the era of using the already named advanced technology at the service of nature. It is in our
hands to become the protagonist of the change in planetary health (ecohealth); see Fig. 7.6.
TABLE 7.5 Potential application of herbal nanocarriers in combating post-COVID-19 complications.
Nanocarrier
Herbal/
bioactive Purpose References
Albumin nanoparticles coated by
chitosan (nanocapsule)
Silymarin/
curcumin
Antiinflammatory and anti-COVID-19 (in vitro
COVID-19 experiment)
[150]
Glycyrrhizic acidly nanoparticles
(GANPs)
Glycyrrhiza
glabra
(licorice) root
Nanonutraceuticals (designed to neutralize the
virus, inhibit virus bindings with receptors, and
support immunity) utilization can manage
COVID-19 pre/postinfection effects
[151]
ZnO
Nanoparticles
Hesperidin In silico docking comparison study of antiviral
nutraceutical phenolics against SARS-CoV-2
main protease.
[152]
Nanocellulose/polyvinyl alcohol/
curcumin (CNC/PVA/curcumin)
nanoparticles
Curcumin A suitable candidate for designing antiviral
nanotherapeutics against SARS-CoV-2.
[153]
Nanosystems Curcumin Curcumin inhibits SARS-CoV-2 M
pro
better than
several marketed drugs in silico.
Curcumin blocks virus entry in cells via S protein
and ACE II receptor
[4]
Sinacurcumin, a soft gel capsule
containing 40 mg of curcuminoids
in nanomicelles
Curcuminoids The study involved patients hospitalized with
COVID-19 classified as mild to moderate. The
authors observed that most of the symptoms
quickly reduced in the group treated with
Sinacurcumin. They concluded that the
curcumin-loaded nanosystem could improve the
recovery time in hospitalized patients with
COVID-19.
[154]
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Acknowledgements
Thanks to the Planetary Health and Covid19 program funded by the Organization American States (OAS), SEK In-
ternational University, Diana Pietzner, Angelica Zacarias from Max Planck Institute for Microstructure Physics and
Christian Schilling from Ludwig Maximilian University for inspiring this book chapter.
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FIGURE 7.6 Potential applications of nanotechnology, herbal medicine, and artificial intelligence on ecohealth.
References 187
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