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196 Flavonoids as Nutraceuticals
to neutralize active oxygen species and free radicals (Klahorst, 2002; Unno
et al., 2000). Flavonoids' antioxidant mechanisms include free radical chain
breaking, metal chelation, and oxygen quenching, as well as enzymatic
inhibition. When oxidized by peroxidase/hydrogen peroxide, flavonoids,
including naringenin, hesperetin, and apigenin, formed pro-oxidant metabo
-
lites which damaged glutathione and NADH (Duthie et al., 1999). Flavonoids
are shown to chelate copper and iron, which might explain some of their
antioxidant properties. Flavonoids' antioxidant processes include free radical
chain breaking, metal chelation, and oxygen quenching, as well as enzy-
matic inhibition (Birt et al., 2001). When oxidized by peroxidase/hydrogen
peroxide, flavonoids, including naringenin, hesperetin, and apigenin, formed
pro-oxidant metabolites that oxidized glutathione and NADH. Flavonoids
chelate copper and iron, which might explain some of their antioxidant
properties (Bors et al., 1996).
9.5.2 ANTI-INFLAMMATORY
Inflammation is the body's complicated biological reaction to adverse
stimuli, including tissue injury, chemical irritation, pathogen infection, and
damaged cells (Nijveldt et al., 2001). Immune cells, blood arteries, and
chemical mediators all play a role in this protective response. The discharge
of chemical mediators at the spot of tissue injury triggers the immigration
of immune cells from blood vessels. Inflammatory illnesses like leukemia,
sepsis, asthma, psoriasis, ileitis/colitis, sclerosis, atherosclerosis, rheuma
-
toid arthritis, allergic rhinitis, and others have all been linked to flavonoids
(Hein et al., 2002). This is followed by the need for inflammatory cells,
the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species
(RNS), and proinflammatory cytokines in order to remove invading invaders
and heal damaged tissues (Cos et al., 1998). Inflammation is normally self-
limiting and quick, but abnormal resolution and persistent inflammation can
lead to a variety of chronic diseases (Pan et al., 2010). Anti-inflammatory
properties are known to exist in Hesperidin, Luteolin, and Quercetin. They
primarily impact enzyme systems involved in inflammatory process genera-
tion (Mishra et al., 2013). Phosphodiesterases involved in cell activation are
similarly inhibited by flavonoids. It transfers hydrogen and peroxynitrite
radicals, peroxyl, and an electron to hydroxyl, stabilizing them and giving
birth to a moderately stable flavonoid radical (Cao et al., 1997). This makes
it a determinant of ROS and RNS scavenging. Flavonoids also protect
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197 Current Trends in the Health Benefits of Flavonoids
lipid-peroxidized cell membranes. Thus, flavonoids have an important
role as antioxidants in the protection of oxidative stress-related illnesses
(Ramchoun et al., 2009).
9.5.3 ANTI-BACTERIAL
Flavonoids are extremely efficient antibacterial compounds against a wide
variety of pathogens because plants may manufacture them in response
to microbial infection. Plants that have a high number of flavonoids have
antibacterial action, according to several studies (Mishra et al., 2011).
Antimicrobial action has been demonstrated in apigenin, glycosides,
flavone flavanones, isoflavones, flavonol galanin, and chalcones (Pandey
et al., 2010). The capacity of antimicrobials to enzymes inactivate micro
-
bial adhesins, cell envelope conveys proteins, and other proteins may be
connected to their mechanism of action. Lipophilic flavonoids have also
been linked to bacterial membrane disruption (Cushnie et al., 2005; Cowan,
1999; Mishra et al., 2009).
9.5.4 ANTIVIRAL
Flavonoids have powerful antiviral properties. They aid in the reserve of
several enzymes involved in the viral biological cycle (Prasad et al., 2010). It
has been discovered that flavonoids and their enzyme-inhibitory action have
a structural and functional connection. Flavon-3-ol was shown to be more
efficient than flavonones and flavones in inhibiting HIV infections (HIV1,
HIV2), as well as other immunodeficiency viruses (Kreft et al., 1999; Yao
et al., 2004).
9.5.5 ANTI-CANCER
Cancer is a multi-step illness involving metabolic, chemical, physical, envi-
ronmental, and genetic variables, all of which have a part in cancer's initia-
tion and progression. Many polyphenolic chemicals, together with phenolic
acids, anthocyanidins, flavonoids, and tannins, have a wide range of medical
properties, as well as anticancer properties (Namiki, 1990). By modulating
diverse receptors and enzymes in the indication transduction pathway linked
to apoptosis, differentiation, cellular proliferation, inflammation, metastasis,
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198 Flavonoids as Nutraceuticals
angiogenesis, and hitch of multidrug opposition, they have been reported
to hinder the initiation, progression, and promotion of cancer. Flavonoids
have been shown to have potential uses in anti-cancer treatments because
of their various molecular modes of exploit (Dixon et al., 1983). Flavonoids
have a significant impact on the immunological processes that occur during
the genesis and progression of cancer. They have the ability to influence
a variety of biological processes in cancer, including cell proliferation,
cell differentiation, vascularization, and apoptosis (Walker et al., 2000).
Flavonoid-induced kinase regulation has a high connection with apoptosis,
cell proliferation, and tumor cell invasive behavior in vitro (Kuhnau, 1976).
Flavonoids primarily promote the carcinogenicity start and support phases,
as well as impacts on development and hormonal activity (Rice-Evanas,
1976).
9.6 CONCLUSION
Over the last 10 years, flavonoids have garnered a lot of attention in the
scientific literature, and a range of possible positive benefits have been
discovered. Flavonoids are usually harmless and have a wide range of
biologically useful properties. Flavonoids may be found in abundance in
the human diet, such as tea, red wine, fruits, and vegetables. Because of its
health advantages, this category of chemicals is being studied extensively.
Dietary flavonoids' function in cancer prevention is hotly debated. Flavo
-
noids are mostly found in fruits and vegetables, with tea and wine serving
as secondary sources. Flavonoids' functions are attributed to scavenging
(chelating) capacities, antioxidative activities, and interactions with enzyme
systems, while a variety of medical possessions have been investigated or
are being tested (e.g., anti-HIV activities and anticancer, avoidance of blood
vessel disorders, and coronary heart disease), with some promising results.
The bioavailability of flavonoids, as well as the purpose assessment of
oxidative compensation in vivo, must be the emphasis of flavonoid research.
More study is essential to establish an accurate and compelling system or
model for evaluating human flavonoid consumption and metabolism, as well
as their purported health effects. Future studies will focus on the exchanges
of flavonoids with receptor molecules in the conduct of chronic and acute
illnesses.
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199 Current Trends in the Health Benefits of Flavonoids
KEYWORDS
• anti-inflammatory activity
• dietary sources
• flavonoids
• human health
• metabolic disorders
• microbes
• phosphodiesterases
• vegetables
• wine
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Flavonoids as Nutraceuticals. Rajesh K. Kesharwani, Deepika Saini, Raj K. Keservani, and
Anil Kumar Sharma (Eds.)
© 2024 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)
CHAPTER 10
ANALYSIS OF COLOR FASTNESS
PROPERTIES OF NATURAL DYE
EXTRACTED FROM RHUS PARVIFLORA
(TUNG) ON WOOL FIBERS USING A
COMBINATION OF NATURAL AND
SYNTHETIC MORDANTS
SHYAM VIR SINGH
Department of Chemistry, Shri Guru Ram Rai (PG) College,
Pathribagh, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
ABSTRACT
The color fastness properties of colorant on wool fibers dyed by natural dye
extracted (the active dye constituent in this species is quercetin which is
a yellow plant flavonol from the flavonoid group) from the fruit of Rhus
parviflora have been studied using a combination of mordants such as white
vinegar + copper sulfate, white vinegar + potassium dichromate, white
vinegar + ferrous sulfate and white vinegar + stannous chloride in the ratio of
3:1, 1:2, and 1:3 separately. Dyeing along with mordanting techniques, which
included pre-mordanting, simultaneous mordanting, and post-mordanting,
has been carried out. A study on fastness tests of dyed clothes is also under-
taken. A large range of shades is obtained because of varying mordant ratios
and combinations. The wash, rub, light, and perspiration fastness of the dyed
samples have also been evaluated, giving fair to excellent fastness grades,
and this evaluation is also useful for textile industries.
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204 Flavonoids as Nutraceuticals
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of natural dyes is by no means new. The primitive people had
revealed the tinctorial properties of the juices of leaves, fruits, crushed
flowers, roots, bark, etc., from the stains left on their hands while collecting
food. Natural dyes have been used in most of the ancient civilizations of
the world, like India, China, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, the Aztecs, and
others. The discovery of red ochre in very ancient burial sites indicates that
the use of natural dyes for esthetic and other purposes is at least 15,000
years old. The art of dyeing cloth is believed to have been known since 3000
BC in China and 2500 BC in India. At relatively the same period (2000
BC), dyeing of cloth in yellow, red, blue, and green was also practiced in
Egypt. Indigo is perhaps the oldest natural dye used by man. It has been
known in India for about 4,000 years. In northern Europe, another blue dye
known as the woad (Isatis tinctoria) has been in use since the Bronze Age
(2500–800 BC). Another ancient dye, the Tyrian purple, derived from the
Mediterranean shellfish of the genera Purpura and Murex, was probably the
most expensive dyestuff in history. The Phoenician towns of Tyre and Sidon
were the centers of this dye industry in about 800 BC, and the Greek dye
factories that produced purple existed all along the Mediterranean coasts.
The Tyrian purple was so precious that an extract of it was often dyed over
the purple made from a Lichen genus Roccella. Gradually, the use of Murex
died out until the Lichen (Roccella) alone provided the purple dye. Natural
dyes produce an extraordinary diversity of rich colors that complement
each other (
Gaur, 2008). Natural dyes from plants may also have dozens
of compounds, and their properties vary with soil type and the weather. In
India, Rajasthan and Kutch still possess a rich tradition in the use of natural
dyes for textile dyeing. In many places in India, traditional wool and woolen
products are dyed with natural dyes. Certain problems with the use of natural
dyes in textile dyeing are color yield, compressibility of the dyeing process,
reproducibility results, limited shades, blending problems, and inadequate
fastness properties (Dayal & Dobhal, 2001). India has a rich biodiversity,
and it is not only one of the world's 12 mega-diversity countries but also one
of the eight major centers of origin and diversification of domesticated taxa.
Mordants are metal salts that produce an afnity between the fabric and
the dye (Nishida & Kabayashi, 1992), and alum, chrome, stannous chloride,
copper sulfate, and ferrous sulfate are the commonly used mordants. Natural
dyes have the ability to produce a wide range of tints and shades with the
same dye material (Vinod et al., 2010). A generally active dye constituent
in this species is quercetin (Figure 10.1), which is a yellow natural colorant
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205 Analysis of Color Fastness Properties of Natural Dye
isolated from the Rhus parviora plant, and it's a avonol from the avonoid
group of polyphenols. Rhus parviora species is very active in giving natural
dyes properties, and these species give us good fastness grades with respect
to the grayscale. Literature review shows that isolation of natural dyes from
this species has not been done till now (Kumaresan et al., 2011;
Gulrajani &
Gupta, 1992). The present study has been undertaken to revive the age-old
dyeing with natural dyes (Anderson, 1971). In this work, the fruit extract of
Rhus parviora is used to dye wool at optimized dyeing conditions, using a
combination of mordants and dyed samples are evaluated for the color fast
-
ness of the dyed samples to wash, rub, perspiration, and light (Bains et al.,
2005; Anitha & Prasad, 2007). Colorfastness is the resistance of a material
to change any of its color characteristics or the extent of transfer of its colo-
rants to adjacent white materials in touch. Anciently, the purpose of coloring
textiles was initiated using colors from natural sources until synthetic colors/
dyes were invented and commercialized. Almost all the synthetic colorants
being synthesized from petrochemical sources through hazardous chemical
processes pose a threat to their eco-friendliness. Up to the end of the 19
th
century, natural dyes were the main colorants for textiles. Recently, interest
in the use of natural dyes has been growing rapidly due to the result of
stringent environmental standards imposed by many countries in response to
toxic and allergic reactions associated with synthetic dyes.
FIGURE 10.1 Quercetin (a yellow natural dye constituent).
In 1856, William Perkins accidently synthesized a basic dye; with the
advent of synthetic dyes, the use of natural dyes declined tremendously
because the existing natural dyes failed to full ll the demand of the market.
The widely and commercially used synthetic dyes impart strong colors but
cause carcinogenicity and inhibition of benthic photosynthesis (Adeel et al.,
2009). The District Chamoli, Uttarkashi, and Pithoragarh of Uttarakhand are
traditional wool and woolen products, and they were still used for dyeing
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