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236 Carbon-Based Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery
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Smart Carbon-Based
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9
Nanocarriers for
Drug Delivery
9.1 INTRODUCTION TO INTELLIGENT
NANOMATERIALS FOR DRUG DELIVERY
Humans have been trying to imitate nature by modeling the behavior of other species since prehistoric times. It is well established that natural biological systems can
dynamically alter their attributes to adapt to their surroundings intelligently. “Intelligent materials,” or those that can “react to changes in the surroundings at the most
optimum scenario and exhibit their particular activities according to these changes,”
were initially reported in detail for the rst time by Toshinori Takagi in the 1990s [1].
Though the scope and feasibility of this idea were incomprehensible at the time,
it was believed that it would pave the way for novel discoveries and innovations in
the scientic and technological arenas. With the advent of cutting-edge technology
and the subsequent demand for novel materials to fulll these needs, the concept of
“intelligent material” (also known as “stimuli-responsive material” or “smart material”) has attracted increasing attention from researchers [2].
Researchers were inspired to develop “stimuli-responsive” substances with biomimetic functionality having excellent potential for use in sophisticated or intelligent
technologies by the remarkable ability of biological systems to transform energy and
perform numerous functions. In the rst decade of the 21st century, nanomaterials
were intensely investigated and eventually implemented in practice. The need for
highly functionalized biomaterials is growing due to advancements in biomedical
engineering. Acommon ability throughout all biological systems is the ability to
respond to shifts in their environment, which is vital for maintaining the optimal
functioning of any organism. Due to this need for adaptability, “smart nanomaterials” that can change their physical properties in response to external stimuli have
been developed. These properties include morphology, permeability, solubility, and
mechanical attributes. The ability of the nanomaterial to recover from the altered
state determines whether or not the reaction may be reversed.
In recent years, the space between biology and the materials sciences has shrunk
signicantly, allowing signicant advancements in interdisciplinary techniques,
notably those that utilize nanostructures for applications in medicine and biology.
The pharmaceutical industry has been at the forefront of the rapid growth of nanotechnology. Many medications are now being produced in nanostructured delivery
systems to treat and diagnose a wide range of disorders; these systems offer several
benets, including fewer adverse effects, more precise drug dosing, and enhanced
DOI: 10.1201/9781003358114-9 243

244 Carbon-Based Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery
pharmacokinetics. Many of the drawbacks associated with free therapeutic entities,
including poor solubility, low stability, nonspecic toxicity, rapid inactivation or
degradation in-vivo, poor biodistribution, and unfavorable pharmacokinetics, can
be overcome by the use of drug-loaded nanoparticles as pharmaceutical carriers,
which can appropriately be called a drug delivery system (DDS) [3]. It is possible
to create nanocarriers that can encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules as drugs, increase their stability, enable drug targeting to pathological organs
and tissues, provide controlled release, and modify the pharmacokinetics as desirable, that is, supersede the drug’s pharmacokinetics with the explicitly designed
pharmacokinetics of the DDS. Figure9.1 illustrates the plethora of nanomaterials that can be employed to deliver therapeutics at targeted locations. Unwanted
side effects of the therapy can thereby be signicantly reduced. In response to
certain inherent stimuli features of diseased tissues or external stimuli provided
from outside the body, nano-sized DDSs can be precisely tailored to modify some
parameters or functions (for example, improve medication release or intracellular absorption) [4,5]. Pathological areas, including atherosclerotic lesions, infarcts,
tumors, infection sites, and transplant rejection zones, differ from normal tissues
due to the presence of internal stimuli, such as local changes in pH, temperature,
and chemical concentrations, that is, the presence of specic hormones, enzymes,
protein factors, antigens, and other bioactive molecules. External stimuli include
magnetic eld, electric eld, heat, electromagnetic waves, and ultrasound [3], as
shown in Figure9.2.
Several new materials and engineering methodologies have been created to produce DDSs that can specically respond to the peculiar circumstances of aficted
tissues, owing to a more profound knowledge of the microenvironmental changes at
diseased sites. The stimuli-sensitive DDSs are able to activate specic mechanisms
that regulate drug release or the effectiveness of cellular ingestion with exposure to
an extrinsic or endogenous stimulus. Drug release is regulated through morphological changes, such as degradation or permeability enhancement, and the breakdown
of chemical bonds intended to bind the medication to the nano-sized carriers. The
stimuli-responsive DDSs are designed to exploit the unique biochemistry of each
FIGURE 9.1 Various Nanomaterials as Carriers for Drug Delivery.

245Smart Carbon-Based Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery
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FIGURE 9.2 Classication of Stimuli.
aficted region, enabling them to acclimatize to the local environment, ensuing in
targeted drug delivery at precisely the correct time and location to enhance efcacy
while minimizing adverse effects [6,7].
This chapter focuses on targeted drug delivery strategies via smart or intelligent
nanomaterials that are aware of their surroundings and respond to either internal or
external stimuli. Primary emphasis has been given to pH-responsive nanocarriers
and their application in different therapies. The oral administration of medicine and
its release in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) is also discussed in detail.
9.2 STRATEGIES FOR THERAPEUTIC TARGETING
AND CONTROLLED DELIVERY OF DRUGS
Modern DDSs consider a variety of factors, including the ideal time to administer
medication, the drug’s bioavailability, the body’s drug absorption capacity, and its
pharmacokinetics. Following are the four conditions that any effective drug delivery
system must accomplish:
1. Retention.
2. Evasion.
3. Targeting.
4 Releasing.
The DDS must have a long residence time in circulation so that it can travel to the
site of interest and be released there at the precise time required for the drug to
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