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Medicinal Plants for Gastrointestinal Diseases
pharmacological effects, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective,
antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities (Zhou et al., 2015).
Cassia angustifolia Vahl.
Cassia angustifolia Vahl. is a precious medicinal plant that has been used by humans to treat díeases
for several thousand years in Vietnam, China, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Yemen (Deshpande & Bhalsing,
2013). The pods and leaves have two anthraquinones: Sennoside ‘A’ and sennoside ‘B’, well known in
pharmaceutical industry as a medicinal laxative. The plant also contains aloe-emodin, emodin, chrysophenol and rhein. There is also a naphthalene glycoside known as tinnevellin glycoside (0.3%) in this
plant. Various medicines from Cassia angustifolia such as Nilaavarrai Choornam of Siddha medicine are
indicated for constipation, bloating, and flatulence; the powder of the dried leaf is taken as a purgative
for treatment constipation, abdominal distention (Ramchander & Middha, 2017). Senna is often used as
a febrifuge in anemia,, splenic enlargements, cholera, typhoid, jaundice, biliousness, rheumatism, gout,
bronchitis, and tumors (Mehrafarin et al., 2012).
Cassia nigricans
Cassia nigricans is an annual herb, or under shrub. It is widely grown in tropical Africa, such as India,
Arabia and Nigeria (Deshpande & Bhalsing, 2013). The leaves of Cassia nigricans has several bio active
substances such as emodic acid, emodin, a flavonoid – luteolin, citreorosein, hydroxyestranic acid and
ethyl ester. Cassia nigricans has many beneficial effects in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders
like ulcers and diarrhea. The methanol extracts from the leaves have been shown to possess important
antiulcerogenic effects, evidently regulated by histaminergic receptor inhibition. It also had a short-acting
effect, reducing intestinal contractility and increasing castor oil-induced diarrhea in mice (Ayo, 2010).
Cassia fistula
Cassia fistula L., a semi-wild Indian Labernum, is widely grown in Mauritius and some areas in Southeast
Asia, Sri Lanka and southern Pakistan. In Vietnam, it has been used as medicine since ancient times.
The xanthone gllycosides and flavonol reported from the plant’s bank, which have beneficial effects for
treating some diseases. A stem bark powder has some compounds like: β-sitosterol, hexacosanol, lupeol,
tannins. The pulp contains carbohydrate 26.30%, protein 19.94%, glutamid, acid leucine and arginine.
The pods contain astringent matter, fistulic acid, matter, gluten, sugar; Seed contains malvalic acids,
vernolic oil, and sterculic. Cassia fistula has been shown to have antipyretic, astringent effects and is
also used as a tonic (Sundaramoorthy et al., 2016). Flowers have the effect of astringent, wound healing, febrifugal, the decoction of flowers is used to treat symptoms of abdominal pain, indigestion (Jothy
et al., 2011). It is shown that the in-vitro effect of Cassia fistula infusion on isolated guinea-pig ileum
and Cassia fistula is suggested to be safely used as a laxative or as its substitute (Danish et al., 2011).
Ricinus communis
Ricinus communis, which is related to the Euphorbiaceae family, is also called Castor oil plant in
English. The plant is known first from India and is grown in some countries in gardens and fields and
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also grows in wild places. This herbal contains various compounds include leaves contain disaccharide
glycoside rutin, gentistic acid, quercetin, and gallic acid; seeds contain proteins Ricin A, B and C and
one ricinus agglutinin; fruit contain alkaloid, ricinine (Rana et al., 2012). At a dose of 500 mg/kg, R.
communis seed castor oil also had anticoagulant properties, and a dose of 1000 mg/kg was more effective in mucosal protection, against the ulceration caused by pylorus, ethanol, and aspirin in mouse (Jena
& Gupta, 2012). Furthermore R. communis oil can be used in cases of inflammation of the intestine or
dysentery (Singh et al., 2010).
Solanum Nigrum
Solanum nigrum L. is widespread in south Asia, which belongs to the Solanaceae family, and has known
as traditional folk medicine. Stems are often angular, sparsely-pubescent. The fruits contain several compounds such as polyphenols and anthocyanidin. Solanum nigrum leaves contain apigenin, gentisic acid,
kaempferol, luteolin, and m-coumaric acid with the highest concentration (Huang et al., 2010). Solanum
nigrum is used to manage gastric ulcers. Solanum nigrum fruits extract decreases gastric secretory vol-
ume, pepsin secretion in ulcerated rats. The results obtained showed a significant reduction in ulceration
after 7 days of treatment with Solanum nigrum fruits extract (200 and 400 mg/kg body weight). It is also
shown that S. nigrum fruits extract inhibits H+K+ATPase activity and decreases the gastrin secretion
in ethanol-induced ulcer models (Jainu et al., 2006). In addition, some studies have indicated that S.
nigrum berries can use a free radical scavenging action to exert their gastroprotective effect. S. nigrum
berries can have significant therapeutic potential for treating gastric diseases (Chauhan et al., 2012).
Psidium Guajava
Psidium guajava is not only a food crop but also a crucial medicinal plant in tropical and subtropical
countries. It contains flavonoid, phenolic, terpenoid, carotenoid and triterpene; seeds even have rich
proteins, starch, oils and flavonoid compounds. The main constituents of guava leaves are catechin, gallic
acid, epicathechin, isoflavonoids, naringenin, kaempferol, phenolic compounds, and rutin. The pulp is
rich in antioxidants, carotenoids (lycopene, β-carotene and β-cryptoxanthin). Psidium guajava is principally known for its antimicrobial and antispasmodic properties within the treatment of dysentery and
diarrhoea. Quercetin present within the leaf extract has been proposed as a possible means of managing
acute diarrheal disease because it inhibited gastrointestinal release of acetylcholine (Gutiérrez et al.,
2008). The crude extract of Psidium guajava (100-1000 mg/kg) in castor oil-induced diarrheal model
has benefits on gut motility as a loperamid, utilized in treatment of hyperactive gut disorders (Gilani et
al., 2011). In fact, several pharmacological trials have shown this plant’s capacity to demonstrate antioxidant, antispasmodic, anti-allergy, antimicrobial, antigenotoxic, antiplasmodial, anti-cough, antidiabetic,
cardioactive, cytotoxic, hepatoprotection, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities.
Cassia Tora
Cassia tora is a precious medicinal plant that has been widely used by humans in traditional medicine.
It is found commonly in Vietnam, India, China and other tropical countries. This plant has isolated some
active compounds such as glycosides, anthraquinone, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, naphthopyrone
glycosides, etc. (Pawar & D’mello, 2011). In traditional medicine, the leaves are anti-patriotic, alterative,
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aperients, and given to children having intestinal disorders. The leaves, roots, and even the whole plant
are used in the treatment of impetigo, ulcers, helminthiasis purgative. Doses of 5 to 15 ml of decoction
of leaves have a mild laxative (Bhandirge et al., 2016). Hydroalcoholic extract of Cassia tora, which
was used orally, showed reduced formation of ulcers, free acidity and total acidity in ethanol induced
gastric ulcer model in Wistar albino rats (Gulia & Choudhary, 2012).
Garcinia cambogia
The fruit rind of Garcinia cambogia contains components are mainly benzophenones (e.g. garcinol) and
xanthones (e.g. carbogiol) together with organic acids and amino acids (e.g. gamma aminobutyric acid).
The main organic acid component of the fruit skin is hydroxycitric acid, which has anti-obesity effects,
decreased de novo lipogenesis and increased fat oxidation (Semwal et al., 2015). The administration of
garcinia to colitic rats improved macroscopic damage, reduced colonic levels of PGE2 and IL‐1β and
decreased in COX-2, MPO activity and iNOS expression (dos Reis et al., 2009). In addition, Garcinia
cambogia has the capacity to reduce the acidity and to increase the mucosal defence in the damaged
gastric mucosa induced by indomethacin (Mahendran et al., 2002).
Ginkgo biloba
Ginkgo biloba L., which is also known by several other names such as Salisburia adiantifolia, Salisburia
macrophylla, and Pterophylla salisburgensis, belongs to the Ginkgoaceae plant family. Low molecular
weight flavonoids are common substances in this plant. The Ginkgo leaf extract contains biflavones
(amentoflavone, bilobetol, 5-methoxybilobetol, ginkgetin, isoginkgetin and sciadopitysin), flavones,
flavonols, and tannins, (Mahadevan & Park, 2008). G. biloba extract has antioxidant effects that can
be used to treat colitis in mice (Kotakadi et al., 2008). Zhou et al., had indicated that G. biloba extract
could reduce histological and macroscopic damage, enhances superoxide dismutase enzyme activity in
the colon tissues of experimental colitis (Zhou et al., 2006). Methanol extracts of G. biloba (leaves) also
have the ability to decimate the gram-negative bacterium Helicobacter pylori which related to redevelopment of gastritis and peptic ulcer disease with MIC > 100 µg/mL (Mahady et al., 2005). Moreover,
G. biloba also inhibited the ethanol-induced gastric injuries in mice by inhibition of lipid peroxidation
and preservation of gastric mucus (Chen et al., 2005).
Angelica sinensis
Angelica sinensis is one of the most normally used traditional Chinese medicines in China. The plant has
some compounds are active components of Angelica sinensis such as aromatic compounds, ferulic acid,
terpenes, Z-ligustilide, Z-butylidenephthalide, phthalides, polysaccharides (Lin et al., 1998). Angelica
sinensis can relieve endothelial vascular cell, inhibit platelet activation, and improve microcirculation
in patients with ulcerative colitis (Dong et al., 2004). Angelica sinensis polysaccharide has a protective
effect on immunological colon injury in rats model, which may be due to the mechanism of antioxidation,
immunomodulation and promotion of wound repair (Liu et al., 2003). Angelica sinensis heals gastric
mucosa directly through an EGF-mediated pathway (Ye et al., 2001).
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Medicinal Plants for Gastrointestinal Diseases
Camellia sinensis
Camellia sinensis (tea) has originated in China and was cultivated in various Asia countries like Vietnam,
India, etc. There are two major types of tea, green tea and black tea. They both contain caffeine (1–5%)
with small amounts of other xanthine alkaloids. Tea also contains large amounts of tannins or phenolic
substances (5–27%) including gallic acid units and catechin (flavanol), which are lower in black tea than
in green tea (Khan & Abourashed, 2011). In general, fresh green tea leaves contain 36% polyphenols,
among which catechins prevail. The pharmacological properties of tea are mainly due to its catechins and
alkaloids (caffeine), which are divided into four main compounds, epigallocatechin (EGC), epicatechin
(EC), epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), epicatechin gallate (ECG), and four secondary compounds are
catechin (C), gallocatechin (GC), gallocatechin gallate (GCG), and catechin gallate (CG). EGCG is the
main catechin found in green tea leaves (48–55%) (Perva-Uzunalić et al., 2006). Moreover, the hot water
extract of black tea possesses anti-ulcer activity (Maity et al., 1995).
Saussurea Lappa
Saussurea lappa is a common plant and has several medicinal uses in India, Korea, China and other Asian
countries. Various potential compounds had been isolated such as β- cyclocostunolide, costunolide, dihydro costunolide, dehydro costuslactone, and sesquiterpene, etc. (Liu et al., 2012; Robinson et al., 2008).
The best known effect of this herbal is anti-inflammatory effect through cynaropicrin, a sesquiterpene
lactone from Saussurea lappa (Cho et al., 2000). Ko et al., (2005) showed that extracts of Saussurea
lappa root can be a good choice against gastric cancer. Moreover, Saussurea lappa has a gastroprotective
effect through some substances like costunolide, dehydrocostus lactone and saussureamines A, B and C
on acidified ethanol-induced gastric mucosal lesions in rats (Matsuda et al., 2000).
Azadirachta Indica
For over 2000 years, Azadirachta indica has been known as one of the most traditional medicinal plants
in Asian countries, especially India and China, for its wide range of biological effects. A. indica leaf
extract induces antiulcer effects in rats orally exposed to cold stress or ethanol by preventing mucus
accumulation and mast cell degranulation. The Aqueous extracts contain Azadirachtin A, B, D, H, I,
Azadirone, Azadiradione, Desacetylnimbin, Nimbin, Nimbolin, Nimbinene, Nimbolide, Salanin (Sadeghian & Mortazaienezhad, 2007). Biswas et al., indicated that the A. indica leaf extract was noted to
have potent antacid secretion and antiulcer activity, and the bioactive compounds, whose effects were
attributed to glycosides (Biswas et al., 2002).
Cissus quadrangularis
Cissus quadrangularis L. belongs to the family Vitaceae and has been used by common man in India,
China for promotion of fracture healing (Mishra et al., 2010). The insulation compounds from this
plant’s stems are stilbenes resveratrol, piceatannol and pallidol, flavonols, quercetin, kaempferol etc.
(Adesanya et al., 1999). Cissus quadrangularis has various potential medical effects, including gastroprotective activity when conjugation with NSAID therapy (Mishra et al., 2010). C. quadrangularis
extract promotes ulcer healing by decreasing gastric secretion and increasing gastric mucin content and
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concentration, increasing glycoprotein level (Jainu et al., 2006). In the mouse model, C. quadrangularis
extract treatment helps restore gastric mucosal epithelium thereby reducing the size of ulcers. In addition,
C. quadrangularis extract reduces neutrophil infiltration and has antioxidant and anti-infective activity,
which plays an important role in gastric defense (Jainu et al., 2006).
Pogostemon cablin
Pogostemon cablin which belongs to the family Laminaceae, is an erect, bushy herbaceous plant growing
to 75 cm tall. Its flowers are small, pinkish-white in color. The main chemicals of this plant are alkaloids,
alcohols, α-patchoulene, α-bulnesene, β-patchoulene terpenoids, eugenol, phytosterols, flavonoids,
organic acids, ligninsglycosides, norpatchoulenol, seychellene, pogostone and pogostol. In traditional
medicine, Pogostemon cablin is used to fight fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, colds,
and headaches. In recent time, studies showed various biological effects like, analgesic, aphrodisiac,
antiemetic, antioxidant, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, antithrombotic, antimutagenic,
cytotoxic and activities fibrinolytic (Swamy & Sinniah, 2015). Yang et al also indicated that the n-hexane
extract of Pogostemon cablin has the ability to exhibit anti-emetic effects (Yang et al., 1999). In addition,
Pogostemon cablin water extract suppressed colon inflammation (Park et al., 2014).
Grapefruit seeds
Grapefruit seeds contain various glycosides, flavonoid, naringenin, quercetin, hesperidin, kaempferol
and apigenin. Grapefruit seed extracts contain flavonoids, which has been shown to have antibacterial,
antifungal and antiviral activities (Drozdowicz et al., 2011). Grapefruit seeds extract has a strong gastroprotective effect against gastric injury through a rise in the asembly of endogenous prostaglandins,
unquestionably mediated hyperemia via nitric oxide NO and inhibition of lipid peroxidation, and coadministration of exogenous calcitonin-related peptides, released from sensory nerves (Brzozowski et
al., 2005).
Curcuma longa
Curcuma longa belongs the ginger family (Zingiberaceae). Rhizomes are horizontal underground stems
which send out both shoots and roots. It is a typical spice in Vietnam, India and China. The crucial curcuminoid found in C. longa is curcumin because of its biological effects. Other curcuminoid compounds
found in this herbal are demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin. In traditional folk medicine
C. longa has been used treat a variety of ailment, including liver disease, urinary tract infection, wound
healing and stomach disorders (Akram et al., 2010). Kim et al., indicated that compounds extracted
from C. longa have the ability to inhibit gastric acid secretion by preventing H2-histamine receptors
by a competitive mechanism in rat models. (Kim et al., 2005). In addition, many studies also showed
curcumin has gastroprotective properties, as evidenced by a decreases in total acid production, pepsin
activity in gastric juice extra mucosal and reduce ulcer index. (Morsy & El-Moselhy, 2013; Thong-Ngam
et al., 2012).
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Medicinal Plants for Gastrointestinal Diseases
Garlic
Garlic, known as Allium sativum is one of the oldest cultivated crops in many countries including Vietnam, China and India. Garlic has various compounds like alliin, allixin, amides, 1,2-vinyldithiin, flavonoids, nitrogen, S-allyl-cysteine, phenolic compounds oxides, saponins and sapogenins, thiosulfinates
and proteins. In which organosulfur compounds play an important role because they highly contribute
to the effective bioactive properties of garlic (Martins et al., 2016). This herbal has a reputation as a
therapeutic panacea. The aged garlic extract helps to correct histopathological abnormalities in gastric
tissue and holds future promise for gastric protection (El-Ashmawy et al., 2016). The extract of garlic
could effectively promote gastrointestinal motility and promote defecation and improve gastrointestinal
function (Chen et al., 2018). Moreover, the consumption of garlic potentially modulates the gut microbiota temporarily (Filocamo et al., 2012).
CONCLUSION
Medicinal plants have proven effective in alleviating symptoms as well as treating diseases of gastrointestinal diseases. Some chemical compounds such as anthraquinone glycosides, flavonoids, tannins and
quercetin have shown strong effects in the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, a deeper detailed study of
medicinal plants to find new compounds with clear activity against gastrointestinal diseases is extremely
necessary.
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