Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:History of economic thought. Textbook
.pdf
11
1.2. History of economic thought in the system of economic sciences
The history of economic thought as a science does not exist on its own, isolated
from other sciences, but in a system.
Economic theory is a core discipline in the system of economic sciences,
serving as a "general theoretical and methodological basis for all economic sciences,
since it develops basic concepts, categories, general directions and methods of
scientific research in economics.
Specific economic sciences study certain areas of the economic life of society:
a) branch sciences — economics of industry, agriculture, construction, labor,
banking, etc.;
b) functional sciences — accounting, statistics, management, marketing,
finance, etc.;
c) economic sciences at the intersection with other sciences — economic
geography, history, psychology, demography, etc."1
Economic policy is the science of implementing economic theory in practice in
the actions of the state, parties, and classes.
The history of economic thought examines the development of these sciences,
primarily economic theory. The history of economic thought can be studied both
chronologically and by studying individual teachings, theories, schools, thought,
and concepts.
1.3. Main stages in the development of economic theory
Economic thought arose in ancient times and went through a long and complex
path of formation and development. At first, economic knowledge was formed on the
basis of a generalization of practice in the form of decrees, laws issued by the rulers
of countries, religious teachings, and philosophical reflections about the life of the
family and the state.
The independent development of economic theory began in the era of the
emergence of market relations in the 16th–17th centuries. (In 1615, the French
economist Antoine de Montchretien proposed the term "political economy").
Researchers in the history of economic thought offer various criteria and
methods of periodization; many stages and directions of development are identified
(see, for example, fig. 1).
1
. Куликов Л.М. Основы экономической теории : учебное пособие. М. : Финансы и статистика, 2003. С. 8–9.
12
Figure 1. Main stages in the development of economic theory
The most generalized scheme for the development of economic theory is
as follows:
1) mercantilism (XVI–XVIII centuries) (English: Thomas Mun, French:
A. de Montchrestien);
2) physiocracy (XVIII century; French Pierre Boisguilbert, Francois Quesnay);
3) classical political economy (XVII–XIX centuries; English W. Petty, Scottish
A. Smith, English D. Ricardo, English J. St. Mill);
4) economic romanticism (XIX century; Swiss S. de Sismondi, French
P. Proudhon);
13
5) utopian socialism (XIX century; French C. H. Saint-Simon, French
C. Fourier, English R. Owen);
6) historical school (XIX century; German F. List, B. Hildebrand, G. Schmoller,
M. Weber);
7) Marxian political economy (mid-19th century; German K. Marx, F. Engels);
8) marginalism and neoclassical school (late 19th century; Austrian K. Menger,
F. von Wieser, Eugen Böhm Ritter von Bawerk; English Alfred Marshall, Swiss
L. Walras, Italian V. Pareto, American J. B. Clark);
9) Keynesian economics (30s of the XX century; English John Maynard
Keynes);
10) neoliberalism (XX century; Austrian L. Mises, F. von Hayek, German L.
Erhard, W. Eucken);
11) monetarism (late 20th century; American K. Wicksell, M. Friedman);
12) institutionalism and neo-institutionalism (beginning of the 20th century;
American Thornstein Veblen, Ronald Coase).
TOPIC 2. ECONOMIC TEACHINGS OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
2.1. Economic thought in ancient Eastern societies
The emergence of economic thought is associated with a certain level of
development of society, economy, economics, and productive forces. The earliest
known sources of economic thought date back to the era of the slave society of the
countries of the Ancient East — Egypt, Babylonia, India and China — in the period
from the 3rd millennium BC.
Thanks to favorable climatic conditions and the richness of flora and fauna,
humanity developed faster in these countries. Agriculture, cattle breeding, and
various crafts arose. It became possible to create a surplus product, i.e. a person could
produce more product than he himself needed.
Thus, the value of man as a creator of surplus product is realized. The hunt for
slaves begins. Wars are waged to capture slaves.
The surplus product was accumulated in the form of stocks of food, things, and
was given on loan. The poor and the rich appear, i.e. property differentiation of the
population is developing. In addition to slaves, there are also insolvent debtors who
are also exploited. Uprisings of the poor and slaves occur periodically.
To maintain the order and suppress uprisings, a political organization was
needed — the state.
14
The state could exist only through levies from the population, which were then
transformed into taxes that still exist today. At the expense of tribute, rulersmaintained palaces, troops, and built temples. Life in the state was developed
according to new decrees and rules. The economic thoughts of those times can be
found in rules.
In these economic ideas one can trace attempts to resolve the contradictions
that arose in society:
1) between slavery and communal farming of free peasants, which also existed
in ancient states;
2) between subsistence farming and trade, which increasingly developed as the
surplus product increased;
3) between the state, private property and the economy; the degree of
government intervention in the economy still remains the most important issue in
economics.
All these processes became the prerequisites for the emergence and
development of thoughts, ideas, teachings, which can be considered the rudiments of
economic theory.
Economic thought of Ancient Egypt
In the XX–XVIII centuries BC the economic life of Egypt can be characterized
by the following:
- there was a temple economy, i.e. combination of community life with slave
ownership, which required certain compromises;
- the idea of state ownership arose, in particular in the field of state
land ownership;
- agriculture and trade are developing;
- debt slavery appears, private slavery develops, slave uprisings occur.
These phenomena and processes are reflected in the surviving documents of
that time, among which are:
1. "The teachings of the Herakleopolis king to his son" (XXII century
BC) — the rules of government and economic management are given, the mastery of
which is as important for the ruler as any other sphere of art.
2. "The Admonitions of Ipuwer" (XVIII century BC). The author of this
document is a representative of the wealthy class. He tries to prove that social
inequality is justified by nature, since people are unequal, just like trees. Ipuver is
indignant that as a result of the uprising, the poor seized the property of the rich,
forced former wealthy people to work, and sought to become slave owners
themselves.
15
Economic thought of Babylonia
Similar processes took place in Ancient Babylonia (the territory of the current
countries of the Middle East — Iran, Iraq).
Economic ideas were contained in the decrees of the kings.
"Reforms of King Urukagina" (mid-3rd millennium BC). Urukagina — king
of the Sumerian city of Lagash, came to power as a result of a riot, ruled for 6 years.
With his reforms, Urukagina tried to reconcile the community members with the
slave owners. He limited the despotism of the nobility and the rights of priests and
leaders. At the same time, the rights of the community members were expanded
(some payments were reduced, the younger brothers of the community members were
no longer hired to work on a special irrigation structure, and the community members
themselves received additional allowances for work; the seizure of the community
member’s property was prohibited). Punishments were introduced for theft, murder,
and robbery; citizens were protected by law from debt slavery and from deception in
collecting taxes.
The Code of King Ur-Nammu (2100–2050 BC) was a set of laws compiled
by the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu. These laws reorganized the army, the tax system,
established the norm of sacrifices, and regulated the system of weights and measures.
Laws from Eshnunna (XX–XIX centuries BC). The code of laws is also
sometimes called "The Laws of Bilalama" after the name of the king with whose
reign their appearance is associated. The laws provided for the state to set prices for
goods and services (for barley, oil, wool, salt, copper, etc., storage). Established fixed
prices made it possible to determine the level of rent, the amount of fines, and the
interest rates. Laws also regulated the sale of real estate.
Code of Lipit-Ishtar (reigned approximately 1935–1924 BC). The laws
concern the rules and procedures for hiring labor and property, family law and
inheritance law, various aspects of private property ownership, relations in land and
debt law.
Code of Hammurabi (XVIII century BC). The division of society into slave
owners and slaves was recognized as natural; slaves were considered equal to
material assets. Slavery even penetrated into the family (if a wife leaves or disgraces
her husband, she becomes his slave or must be thrown into the river). At the same
time, debt slavery was limited to three years. The killing of insolvent debtors was
prohibited.
Certain norms for land rent were established.
16
Private property was strengthened, it was protected by law from theft and
deception. The rules for the transfer of property by inheritance and its division
were regulated.
Trade was recognized as normal, and rules of exchange were established.
Economic Thought of Ancient India
The emergence of economic ideas in Ancient India is evidenced by a number
of sources reflecting the uniqueness of this country. First of all, it’s the caste system.
The division of the population into castes can be traced in the ancient poems
"Mahabharata" (about the wars of the Bharata tribe) and "Ramayana" (about the
exploits of the god Rama).
Caste system was also consolidated in the laws of Manu (a set of instructions
sent down to people by the divine progenitor). People were divided into four castes:
- brahmins — were created from the mouth of the god Brahma, these
are priests;
- kshatriyas — created from the hands of Brahma, these are rulers, guards;
- vaishyas — created from thighs, these are traders, moneylenders;
- shudras — created from feet, these are workers who were supposed to serve
the other castes.
The laws of Manu established ways to turn a free person into a slave: captivity,
maintenance or birth in the master's house, purchase, inheritance, punishment for debts.
The laws of Manu expressed the views of slave owners; slavery was declared
established by the God himself.
Another ancient Indian tractate is the "Arthashastra" (IV century BC) — the
doctrine of politics and material prosperity.
The author of the "Arthashastra" is the advisor and minister of King
Chandragupta Kautilya (Vishnagupna).
The "Arthashastra" also consolidates casteism and slavery. However,
measures were also provided to limit slavery: a slave could own property, had the
right to receive an inheritance and the right to redeem himself at the expense of his
property. This made India different from other slave states.
The "Arthashastra" established widespread government intervention in the
economic life of the population.
The state had to ensure the construction and protection of structures, irrigation
systems, preferential land use, development of ore sources, construction of wells and
17
roads, development of industries, creation of new villages, fight against speculating
traders, etc.
The types of taxes and duties that the king had to collect were listed.
The supreme power had to create insurance reserves "for several years of use"
to maintain the life of the state in the event of war or crop failure. A detailed list of
products and materials (from medicines and dried meats to weapons, shields, stones)
to be included in the general supply is provided.
Economic thought of Ancient China
Economic thought was most developed in Ancient China. Economic teachings
have already appeared, tractates have been created on issues of the economic life of
society, financial policy, and trade.
Confucius, or Kung Fu-tzu (551–449 BC) was an important dignitary at the
court of one of the princes. His teachings are set out in the book "Lun-yu"
("Conversations and judgments"). It contains a whole series of philosophical, moral,
as well as economic reflections and judgments. In the teachings of Confucius one can
find a reflection of the struggle between the communal system and the slave system.
Confucius mourns for the community, but at the same time calls on the slaves to
come to terms with their situation and submit to their rulers.
The "Guanzi" (IV–III centuries BC) is a political and economic text
containing more than 500 works by various authors. The tractate is named after the
first writer Guanzi, the minister of the large principality of Qi.
Main ideas of the tractate:
1. The state has a leading role. The state has a monopoly on natural resources —
forests, rivers, mineral resources, salt, etc. The state must protect the peasantry from
speculators and usurers by setting prices for food products.
2. The population was divided into four groups depending on their occupation:
service people, farmers, artisans and traders. Farmers were considered the main
productive force. It was not recommended for people from different groups to live
together to avoid confusion in speech and instability in business.
3. A financial program was put forward to collect direct and indirect taxes. The
principles of progressive taxation were substantiated. Taxes were levied not on the
community, but on the property. At the same time, the amount of the tax was
supposed to depend on the quality of the land, the volume and sale of the crop.
4. Ideas have been expressed about the market, which acts as a regulator of all
goods based on fluctuations in supply and demand.
18
5. Private entrepreneurship is also allowed.
Shang Yang (circa 350 BC) — advisor to the ruler of the Qin kingdom,
Xiao-gong. Shang Yang carried out a number of important political and economic
reforms:
1. For the first time in the history of China, private ownership of land was
declared, and the conditions for its purchase and sale were determined.
2. The cult of labor was proclaimed. However, the army and grain production
were considered the most important for the state. The production of simple fabrics
was also approved. All other activities — trade, crafts, music, literature, etc. — were
considered harmful.
3. The idea of a strong state developed, the enrichment of which should occur
through war and grain procurement. The state must have clear and precise laws that
must be strictly observed by absolutely everyone.
2.2. Economic thought in the ancient world
Economic thought of Ancient Greece
The formation of economic thought in Greece can be traced back to the period
of the formation of the slave system (from approximately the 8th century BC). The
communal economy is decomposing, city-states (city-states) are appearing, slaveowning foundations are being strengthened, and slave riots are periodically
breaking out.
Some information about the economy of that time is found in the famous works
of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey", reflecting the worldview of the ancient Greeks:
- the cult of war, which is the main means of capturing slaves;
- contradictions between the communal system and slavery;
- contradictions between subsistence farming and trade.
The work of Hesiod (VIII–VII centuries BC) "Works and Days" is also
known. Hesiod showed the difficult life of the people, which is associated with
constant need and exhausting labor. At the same time, Hesiod glorified labor and
considered it economically necessary. At the same time, Hesiod allowed slavery.
In his poem, Hesiod gave advice on housekeeping: how to build a house, buy
oxen; In order not to split up land plots, he recommended limiting the birth of
children. Hesiod did not consider trade necessary and did not welcome it.
The contradictions between the people and the rich nobility intensified, which
led to the need for reforms.
19
Reforms of Solon (VI century BC). Slavery was encouraged, but measures were
taken to limit it, in particular debt slavery was reduced. It was believed that for the
stability of the state a layer of free people was necessary. The army of slaves was
supposed to be replenished by capturing other states. They were directed against
subsistence farming, towards the development of trade, the expansion of cities
and industry.
This policy was continued by Pericles, the ruler of Athens (5th century BC).
Under him, the slave system was greatly strengthened, trade developed, and the
practice of feeding the free population with the surplus product of slaves spread.
In the 4th century BC, the crisis of the slave system began in ancient Greece. A
number of problems and questions arose:
- what to do with slavery if it becomes socially dangerous and sometimes leads
to the destruction of cities;
- is trade necessary if it led to the impoverishment of the free population, and
should we return to agriculture and subsistence farming.
The search for answers to these questions contributed to the emergence of new
economic ideas.
Xenophon (444–356 BC) belonged to the ruling class and was an ideologist of
slave owners.
He considered slavery to be correct, and especially praised collective slavery,
when a slaveholding community jointly owned a group of slaves.
He was on the side of subsistence farming, supported agriculture, criticized
industry. He treated craft work condescendingly (a free citizen should not be a
craftsman), he believed that in order to achieve greater results, division of labor and
specialization were necessary.
He had a negative attitude towards money, as he was against trade. He
advocated the introduction of fines for the accumulation of gold and silver for
personal use.
Xenophon is the author of many works, among which the most interesting from
an economic point of view is "Oeconomicus" (or "Household Economics", or
"Economics"). It is believed that it was Xenophon who introduced the concept of
"economics", since from Greek this word is translated as managing (running) a
household.
"Oeconomicus" provides practical recommendations on the rational
management of household and land management.
In "Oeconomicus" Xenophon talks about the value of things. The value of
things is determined by their usefulness. Moreover, the usefulness of a thing depends
20
on a person’s ability to use it (for example, a flute is of no value to a person who does
not know how to play it).
Plato (427–347 BC). Outstanding philosopher of antiquity, ideologist of slave
owners.
Plato's economic ideas are contained in his work "The Republic", where he
proposes a project for an ideal social structure. Everyone in such a society should do
what he is best suited for. According to Plato, a just society should consist of four
classes: rulers, warriors, free peasants and artisans, and slaves.
Rulers and warriors should not have private property, so that nothing distracts
them from concerns about the public good. He even proposed to make women a
public property, and gold and silver an object of contempt. At the same time, peasants
and artisans, on the contrary, could be private owners, as this encourages them to
work better.
Such a structure of society, Plato believed, would lead to the disappearance of
rivalry and discord. The courts will disappear. Credit and interest will be prohibited.
All property is subject to accounting. If citizens have a surplus that exceeds the
established maximum, the state takes it away.
Later, in his work "The Laws", Plato proposes a more realistic project for a
slave state. He advises giving all citizens the same education; but full citizens should
not engage in crafts and agriculture. Instead of the community of wives and property
preached by Plato in the Republic, "The Laws" requires only that public meals be
arranged, so that all people enjoying civil rights, both men and women, participate in
them; marriage be brought under government control; the maximum amount of
movable property that can belong to one person be determined; whenever possible, an
equal distribution of land among citizens is maintained.
Aristotle (384–322 BC). A great philosopher, encyclopedist, who wrote more
than a thousand books and made many discoveries. His conceptual apparatus and style
of scientific thinking are also used by modern sciences. His teachings seriously
influenced the further development of human thought. In economics, many believe that
Aristotle was the first academic economist to create the outlines of economic theory.
Some of his works: "Nicomachean Ethics", "Organon (Logic)", "Physics",
"Metaphysics", "On Nature", "On Animals", "On Heaven", "On Plants", "Politics",
"Rhetoric", "Poetics", "Economics".
Aristotle was a student of Plato. Like Plato, he considered slavery necessary.
However, unlike Plato, Aristotle was a supporter of private property. Private
property, in his opinion, contributes to the achievement of better labor results, and
also makes a person magnanimous and generous.
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]