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PSYCHONAUTS
i
ii
PSYCHONAUTS
Drugs and the Making of
the Modern Mind
MIKE JAY
YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW HAVEN AND LONDON
iii
Copyright © 2023 Mike Jay
All rights reserved. This book may not be reproduced in whole or in part, in any form
(beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law and
except by reviewers for the public press) without written permission from the publishers.
All reasonable efforts have been made to provide accurate sources for all images that appear
in this book. Any discrepancies or omissions will be rectified in future editions.
For information about this and other Yale University Press publications, please contact:
U.S. Office: sales.press@yale.edu yalebooks.com
Europe Office: sales@yaleup.co.uk yalebooks.co.uk
Set in Adobe Garamond Pro by IDSUK (DataConnection) Ltd
Printed in Great Britain by TJ Books, Padstow, Cornwall
Library of Congress Control Number: 2022948975
e-ISBN 978-0-300-27151-5
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
iv
CONTENTS
List of Illustrations viii
PROLOGUE Before Drugs 1
PART I THE NEW ACCELERATOR: DRUGS AND
MENTAL ENHANCEMENT
1 The Elixir of Life 19
Sigmund Freud experiments with cocaine — neurasthenia,
disease of modernity — the search for a stimulant — a history
of self-experiment — objectivity and heroic doses — the problem
of euphoria
2 Prosthetic Gods 63
Medical miracle, scourge of humanity — the arrival of the
addict — the wonders of the pharmacy — Jekyll and Hyde
personalities — Sherlock Holmes on cocaine — modernity
and its discontents
PART II BEYOND THE VEIL: DRUGS AND THE LIMITS OF
CONSCIOUSNESS
3 A World of Pure Experience 103
William James experiments with nitrous oxide — the
Anaesthetic Revelation — laughing gas at the carnival — surgery
v
CONTENTS
without pain, consciousness without a body — the meaning of
hallucinations
4 The Unseen Region 135
The psychical researchers — drugs and the spirit world — the
mysteries of double consciousness — ether, literature and
madness in fin-de-siècle Paris — William James’s multiverse
and the new century
PART III SATURNALIA OF THE SENSES: DRUGS AND
THE CREATIVE IMAGINATION
5 Tales of the Hashish Eaters 167
Silas Burroughs in Morocco Arabian Nights and
Assassins — bhang in Bengal — the experiments of
Dr Moreau — The Club des Hashischins — hashish
and the arabesque — Baudelaire, drugs and modernity
6 Extasia, Fantasia and Illuminati 201
Rosicrucian hashish elixirs — drugs and the occultists —
W.B. Yeats and Maud Gonne on the astral plane — peyote and
synaesthesia — the hashish houses of New York — a global
pharmacopoeia
PART IV LOST AND FOUND
7 A Sin, a Crime, a Vice or a Disease? 241
1900: the arrival of ‘drugs’ — drugs, class and race in the
Progressive Era — the decline of introspection — soma for the
masses — the transgressions of Aleister Crowley — drugs and
war — James Lee retires
vi
CONTENTS
8 Twice-Born 272
1960–2: the watershed years — global prohibition,
global drug culture —Robert Graves on mushrooms — the
invention of psychedelics — mystical experience
reborn — double blind and placebo — the return of
the psychonauts
EPILOGUE After Drugs 309
Endnotes 318
Bibliography 335
Acknowledgements 348
Index 349
vii
ILLUSTRATIONS
1. ‘Hall’s Coca Wine: the elixir of life’. Stephen Smith & 18
Co. Ltd.
2. Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays, 1885. Library of 20
Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-
117968.
3. Brown glass bottle of phosphorus, zinc and strychnine 27
pills. Science Museum, London. Attribution 4.0
International (CC BY 4.0).
4. Johann Purkinje, ‘Observations and Experiments on the 46
Physiology of the Senses’, 1823.
5. Hypodermic syringe, Europe, 1871–1900. Science Museum, 71
London. Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0).
6. Interior of Heppell & Co., Hotel Cecil Buildings, 76
77–78 Strand, London. By permission of the Royal
Pharmaceutical Society Museum.
7. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, c. 1880. Library of Congress, 89
Prints and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ds-04518.
8. Holmes and his ‘hypodermic’, with Dr Watson 96
in Broadway production of Sherlock Holmes, 1899.
Wellcome Collection.
9. ‘Ether Dreams’, illustration for Les Merveilles de la 102
Science, 1868. Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo.
10. William James in Brazil after the attack of small-pox: 105
portrait photograph, 1865. Houghton Library, MS Am
1092 (1185), 8.
viii
ILLUSTRATIONS
11. A man breathing in nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and 112
a man exhibiting its exhilarating effects, wood engraving,
c. 1840. Wellcome Collection.
12. Nathan P. Rice, Trials of a Public Benefactor: As Illustrated 118
in the Discovery of Etherization, 1859. Wellcome Collection.
13. James Young Simpson and two friends, having tested 121
chloroform on themselves, lying insensible on the floor,
1847. Wellcome Collection.
14. Sir William Ramsay (‘Men of the Day. No. 1148. 139
“Chemistry”’), 1908. © National Portrait Gallery, London.
15. Illustration for H.G. Wells’s ‘Under the Knife’, in 148
Amazing Stories, 1927.
16. Jean Lorrain. Hirarchivum Press / Alamy Stock Photo. 156
17. Jean-Martin Charcot, drawing produced under the 166
influence of hashish, c. 1850. © Archives Charmet /
Bridgeman Images.
18. Shops of hashish merchants on a street in Cairo, 176
chromolithograph by A. Preziosi, c. 1850, after himself.
Wellcome Collection.
19. Théophile Gautier, photograph by Gaspard-Félix 185
Tournachon (‘Nadar’).
20. Salle à manger in the Hôtel Pimodan. Volgi 187
Archive / Alamy Stock Photo.
21. Charles Baudelaire, ‘Self-Portrait under the Influence 195
of Hashish’, c. 1844. © Archives Charmet / Bridgeman
Images.
22. Paschal Beverly Randolph. Historic Images / Alamy 202
Stock Photo.
23. Maud Gonne McBride. Library of Congress, Prints 221
and Photographs Division, LC-DIG-ggbain-00612.
24. Sidney Herbert Sime, frontispiece illustration of 231
Théophile Gautier’s hashish hallucination, 1905.
By permission of the Sidney Sime Gallery, Worplesdon, UK.
ix
ILLUSTRATIONS
25. Isabelle Eberhardt, c. 1900. Zuri Swimmer / Alamy 237
Stock Photo.
26. Cover of William Lee, Junkie, 1940s. Retro 240
AdArchives / Alamy Stock Photo.
27. Interior of Chinese lodging house, San Francisco, 244
California, c. 1921. Library of Congress, Prints and
Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-102090.
28. Display advertisement for Collier’s magazine’s coverage 247
of the patent medicine fraud, Public Opinion, 39(26), 1905.
29. Aleister Crowley, 1934. © National Portrait Gallery, 264
London.
30. ‘Koks-Emil’ (‘Cocaine Emil’), photograph by 267
Georg Pahl, 1924. Bundesarchiv, Bild 102-07741.
31. Paul Bowles and Mohammed Mrabet exercising, 278
photograph by Shepard Sherbell, 1969. © Shepard
Sherbell / CORBIS / Corbis via Getty Images.
32. Alexander Shulgin in his laboratory, photograph by 306
Dennis Galloway. © Dennis Galloway.
x