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- •2 Venography and Intravascular Ultrasound (IVUS) in Venous Imaging
- •3 Pathophysiology and Conservative Management of Chronic Venous Insufficiency
- •8 High Ligation and Stripping of the Saphenous Veins
- •9 Ambulatory (Stab) Phlebectomy
- •10 The Management of Incompetent Perforating Veins
- •11 Thrombotic Complications Following Treatment of Peripheral Varicose Veins
- •12 Pathophysiology and Management of Chronic Venous Stasis Ulcers
- •14 Contemporary Management of Non-Thrombotic and Thrombotic Iliocaval Compression Syndrome
- •15 Evidence-Based Diagnosis and Management of Pelvic Congestion Syndrome
- •17 Endovascular and Open Management of Benign Disease of the Deep Venous System
- •18 Evidence-Based Management of Venous Aneurysms
- •20 Contemporary and Evidence-Based Medical Therapy for VTE
- •21 Endovascular Management of Deep Venous Thrombosis
- •23 Axillosubclavian Vein Thrombosis (Paget-Schroetter Syndrome)
- •Index

70 Samuel Eric Wilson, et al.
Figure 8.4 Placement of the conical tip on the distal end of the vein stripper.This device is sutured firmly to
the saphenous vein prior to inversion stripping.
Figure 8.5 The great saphenous vein with associated vein stripper following removal.
A T shaped handle is present at the proximal end which is used to pull the venous stripper. An assistant uses towels to compress the venous bed, and with steady traction the vein is
removed (Figure8.5). Pressure is held on the elevated leg for 10 minutes, which helps avoid
hematoma and minimize swelling postoperatively. Previously identified and marked accessory veins can be removed by avulsion with stab phlebectomies. Sterile gauze and compression bandages are firmly wrapped around the leg beginning at the foot.
For the SSV, the vein is ligated flush to the SPJ and divided. We prefer to limit stripping of
the SSV to the segment immediately caudal to the SPJ because of the proximity of the sural
nerve to the SSV in the lower calf. In general, the venous anatomy of the SSV is less predictable
and more variable than that of the GSV. Preoperative and intraoperative duplex ultrasound

High Ligation and Stripping of the Saphenous Veins 71
guidance allows clear anatomical delineation of the SPJ and associated venous branches and
should be used routinely.
RESULTS FOLLOWING SAPHENOUS VEIN LIGATION AND STRIPPING
Good clinical evidence continues to demonstrate that saphenous HL/S is a safe, effective,
and durable technique for the treatment of symptomatic reflux and varicose veins.10 Over
the past decade, several randomized trials have compared this conventional surgical technique with endovenous methods for truncal vein closure with favorable and comparable
outcomes.
Brittenden and colleagues performed a randomized controlled trial in the United Kingdom
that compared quality of life and cost-effectiveness in 595 patients following HL/S, laser
ablation, and foam sclerotherapy.
11
At 5years, disease-specific quality of life was improved
(and similar) following laser ablation and surgery compared with foam sclerotherapy. Laser
ablation was found to be the most cost-effective option amongst the different treatments.
Another randomized study compared clinical outcomes at 10years following HL/S with
laser ablation.
12
The trial cohort consisted of 130 limbs (68 limbs treated with HL/S and 62
limbs with EVLA). The 10-year estimated freedom from groin recurrence was higher in the
HL/S group compared with laser. The same trend was noted for clinically evident recurrence.
There were no significant differences between quality of life and relief of venous symptoms
between the two groups. Long-term cosmetic outcomes also favored the HL/S group.
Joh and colleagues compared short-term outcomes following saphenous HL/S and cya-
noacrylate closure (CAC).
13
The primary outcome studied was complete closure of the target vein at 3 months. The study included 126 randomized subjects (63 with CAC and 63
with HL/S). At 3 months, all patients demonstrated complete vein closure in both groups.
Postoperative pain was significantly lower in the CAC group. Venous Clinical Severity Scores
(VCSS) and quality of life improved equally in both groups.
Clinical outcomes following HL/S for the SSV are also good when compared to nonthermal techniques. Nandhra and colleagues performed a randomized clinical trial comparing HL/S and laser ablation of the SSV.
14
Although elimination of axial reflux was superior
following laser ablation, there were no significant differences in clinical recurrence, sensory
disturbance, or quality of life at 2years between the two groups.
COMPLICATIONS OF HIGH LIGATION AND STRIPPING OF THE
SAPHENOUS VEINS
The most immediate negative sequela of HL/S is postoperative pain. The current literature
and our anecdotal clinical experience suggest that HL/S requires more anesthesia and is more
painful compared with thermal ablation and CAC.15 Clinical recurrence of varicose veins
may occur following both surgical and endovenous saphenous vein closure.
16
Postoperative seroma or lymphocele may develop at the groin wound if a lymph node has
been injured or divided.
17
When recognized, complete excision of the node will prevent leak-
age of serum and minimize postoperative collections.
In past years the stripper was often passed as far as the ankle level to allow removal of the
entire vein, however this approach may injure the saphenous nerve, which is closely adjacent
to the GSV in the lower leg.18 Many surgeons limit stripping from just below the knee to the

72 Samuel Eric Wilson, et al.
SFJ. Injuries to the saphenous and sural nerves nerve may occur following HL/S of the GSV
and SSV, respectively. The literature suggests that the incidence of nerve injury in this setting
is low and rarely results in long-term impairment or decreased quality of life.
18
As impossible as it may seem, there are patients who have had the superficial femoral artery
19
mistaken for a thick wall saphenous vein resulting in arterial injury.
The expected severe
consequences have ensued.
CONCLUSIONS
High ligation and stripping of the saphenous veins have a lesser role in therapy than endovenous ablation in the contemporary era. Today they are indicated primarily for those who have
a contraindication to percutaneous methods primarily because the morbidity is less, general
anesthesia is not required, and recovery is faster. Specific indications, however, remain for
surgical HL/S, and both short and long-term clinical outcomes are favorable when compared
with less invasive techniques for patients with symptomatic varicose veins. Vascular surgeons
and venous specialists should be familiar with its anatomical indications and technique.
REFERENCES
1. van den Bremer J, Moll FL. Historical overview of varicose vein surgery. Ann Vasc Surg.
2010;24:426–32.
2. Royle J, Somjen GM.Varicose veins: Hippocrates to jerry moore.ANZ J Surg. 2007;77:1120–27.
3. Cheatle T. The long saphenous vein: To strip or not to strip? Semin Vasc Surg 2005;18:10–14.
4. Crawford JM, Gasparis A, Almeida J, et al. A review of United States endovenous ablation
practice trends from the Medicare data utilization and payment database. J Vasc Surg Venous
Lymphatic Disorders. 2019;7:471–79.
5. Garcia-Madrid C, Manrique OP, Gomez-Blasco F, et al. Update on endovenous radio-frequency
closure ablation of varicose veins. Ann Vasc Surg. 2012;26:281–91.
6. Bountouroglu DG, Azzam M, Kakkos SK, et al. Ultrasound-guided foam sclerotherapy combined with sapheno-femoral ligation compared to surgical treatment of varicose veins: Early
results of a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2006;31:93–100
7. Gloviczki P, Lawrence PF, Wasan SM, Meissner MH, Almeida J, Brown KR, etal. The 2022 Society for Vascular Surgery, American Venous Forum, and American Vein and Lymphatic Society
clinical practice guidelines for the management of varicose veins of the lower extremities. Part
I. Duplex scanning and treatment of superficial truncal reflux: Endorsed by the Society for Vascular Medicine and the International Union of Phlebology. J Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord.
2023;11:231–36.e6.
8. Kemaloglu C. Saphenous vein diameter is a single risk factor for early recanalization after endothermal ablation of incompetent great saphenous vein. Vascular. 2019;27:537–41.
9. Lawrence PF, Chandra A, Wu M, Rigberg D, Derubertis B, Gelabert H, etal. Classification of
proximal endovenous closure levels and treatment algorithm. J Vasc Surg. 2010;52:388–93.
10. Shahzad N, Elsherif M, Abaidat I, Brar R. Asystematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials comparing thermal versus non-thermal endovenous ablation in superficial
venous incompetence. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2023;66:687–95.
11. Brittenden J, Cooper D, Dimitrova M, Scotland G, Cotton SC, Elders A, etal. Five-year outcomes of a randomized trial of treatments for varicose veins. N Engl J Med. 2019;381:912–22.
12. Eggen CA, Alozai T, Pronk P, Mooij MC, Gaastra MTW, Unlu C, etal. Ten-year follow up of
a randomized controlled trial comparing saphenofemoral ligation and stripping of the great

High Ligation and Stripping of the Saphenous Veins 73
saphenous vein with endovenous laser ablation (980 nm) using local tumescent anesthesia. J
Vasc Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2022;10:646–53.e1.
13. Joh JH, Lee T, Byun SJ, Cho S, Park HS, Yun WS, etal. Amulticenter randomized controlled trial
of cyanoacrylate closure and surgical stripping for incompetent great saphenous veins. J Vasc
Surg Venous Lymphat Disord. 2022;10:353–59.
14. Nandhra S, El-Sheikha J, Carradice D, Wallace T, Souroullas P, Samuel N, etal. Arandomized
clinical trial of endovenous laser ablation versus conventional surgery for small saphenous varicose veins. J Vasc Surg. 2015;61:741–46.
15. Kanber EM, Cetin HK. Comparison of radiofrequency ablation and saphenous vein stripping for the treatment of recurrent lower extremity venous insufficiency. Vasc Endovasc SUrg.
2023;57:726–731.
16. Nesbitt C, Bedenis R, Bhattacharya V, Stansby G. Endovenous ablation (radiofrequency and
laser) and foam sclerotherapy versus open surgery for great saphenous vein varices. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev. 2014;(7):CD005624.
17. Dessalvi S, Villa G, Campisi CC, Boccardo F. Decreasing and preventing lymphatic-injuryrelated complications in patients undergoing venous surgery: Anew diagnostic and therapeutic
protocol. Lymphology. 2018;51:57–65.
18. Morrison C, Dalsing MC. Signs and symptoms of saphenous nerve injury after greater saphenous vein stripping: Prevalence, severity, and relevance for modern practice. J Vasc Surg.
2003;38:886–90.
19. Marcucci G, Accrocca F, Antonelli R, Siani A. The management of arterial and venous injuries
during saphenous vein surgery. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2008;7:432–33.

Chapter 9
Ambulatory (Stab) Phlebectomy
William Duong and David Rigberg
THE ORIGIN OF PHLEBECTOMY
Varicose veins are a common condition managed by the vascular provider, affecting 23% of
adults in the United States, with an estimated 22million women and 11million men between
the ages of 40 and 80years old.
veins are enlarged superficial veins that exist on the spectrum of chronic venous disease,
alongside subdermal spider veins, telangiectasis, and reticular veins. By definition, varicose
veins are dilated, tortuous, subcutaneous veins measuring greater than or equal to 3mm in
diameter.2 Running in the superficial space above the saphenous fascia, these are tributaries
of and ultimately drain into the greater saphenous vein.
The treatment of a venous varix by phlebotomy was first conceptualized by Hippocrates
in 400 BC,4 by performing multiple punctures in the vein. However, it was Aulus Cornelius
Celsus (25 BC–45 AD) who was first to perform a phlebectomy to treat a varicose vein in
ancient Rome around 0 CE.5 Without the assistance of anesthesia, patients experienced great
pain from the procedure, and the technique eventually fell out of favor.6 The idea was rediscovered in 1956 by Dr. Robert Muller, a Swedish surgeon, who developed and refined his
own method, now referred to as Muller’s phlebectomy, or ambulatory/stab phlebectomy.
1
From Latin, “varicosus” means “dilated veins;” varicose
3
5
INDICATIONS
Ambulatory phlebectomy is directed toward the treatment of primary or secondary truncal
and accessory varicose veins. These are often large and symptomatic, as they can cause sensations of extremity heaviness, discomfort, or even pain.3 Areas that may be appropriate for
the procedure of phlebectomy include the accessory saphenous veins of the thigh, pudendal
veins of the groin, reticular varicose veins of the popliteal fossa, as well as the lateral portion
of the thigh and leg, and the veins of the ankle and dorsum of the foot.7 Although not commonly practiced, phlebectomy could be carried out for dilated veins in the upper extremity or
even dilated venous networks within the face.7 Within the Society for Vascular Surgery and
American Venous Forum clinical practice guidelines, there is strong recommendation with
moderate quality of evidence for, “[recommending] ambulatory phlebectomy for treatment
of varicose veins, performed with saphenous vein ablation, either during the same procedure
or at a later stage. If general anesthesia is required for phlebectomy, we suggest concomitant
saphenous ablation.”
CONTRAINDICATIONS
Although often a minor outpatient procedure, ambulatory phlebectomy should be avoided in
select patients, particularly in patients with high risk for bleeding or with legs where wound
healing would be prohibitive, including those with significant swelling and edema. Conversely,
patients with hypercoagulable states should be approached cautiously with careful attention
8
DOI: 10.1201/9781003316626-11 74

Ambulatory (Stab) Phlebectomy 75
given to their medical management. Contraindications include extremities with active infection or inflammation, such as cellulitis or dermatitis. Finally, as stab phlebectomy is most
often pursued in an elective fashion, patients who are generally poor surgical candidates or
have ongoing illness with active threat to life should not undergo this procedure.
4
PREPARATION FOR PROCEDURE
Preoperative marking of the patient is an important step to the ambulatory phlebectomy
procedure. With the patient standing, the varicosities are marked with indelible ink as they
are often more visible in this position (Figure9.1). Palpation can be helpful. This is best done
with ambient lighting that falls tangentially over the varicosities being examined.6 Avein
transilluminator can be utilized. The patient is, as well, useful in identifying the symptomatic
veins that require attention.
MULLER’S TECHNIQUE
Once the patient has been marked, they are brought into the office procedure room or operating room and positioned as needed. Although general anesthesia, monitored anesthesia care,
or regional anesthesia are all acceptable options for anesthesia, local anesthesia is usually
sufficient, with 0.5% or 1% lidocaine with or without epinephrine. It is important to note
the amount of local anesthetic given, as for 1% lidocaine with epinephrine, the maximum
recommended dosage is 7 mg/kg.
Hair removal is optional, as hair rarely interferes with the procedure. The operating leg is
then elevated to minimize the venous bleeding and ecchymosis associated with the procedure.
With the veins marked, and following infiltration of local anesthetic, a 1–3mm incision is
made with an 11-scalpel adjacent to each varicosity. An 18 gauge needle can also be used to
make the incision.9 We recommend beginning proximally and moving distally. When done in
Figure 9.1 Patient has been pre-operatively marked and is undergoing stab phlebectomy.

76 William Duong and David Rigberg
Figure 9.2 Acrochet hook (left) and a Halsted mosquito hemostat (right) is pictured.
the lower extremity, a longitudinal incision is often preferred; however transverse incisions
in the groin, knee, and ankle may be more cosmetic as they align with the lines of Langer.
9
A hook instrument is then used to capture the varicosity, such as the Oesch-style hook or
a crochet hook (Figure9.2). Once captured, the vein will appear pearly white6 (Figure9.3).
Although smaller subdermal varicosities can simply be avulsed, longer and larger varicosities
should be grasped with pointed clamp, such as a Halsted mosquito hemostat. Once the vein is
doubly clamped, it is sharply divided between the two clamps. Each end is slowly and gently
pulled from the adhering subcutaneous fat and slowly rolled onto the clamp in the direction
of the vein (Figure9.3). Successive clamps can be applied to improve traction. Effort should
be directed toward preventing premature avulsion of the vein; if this occurs, a separate incision can be made proximally or distally to recapture the vein and maximize length of vein
removed.9 It is important to remove as much of the varicosity as possible as this will reduce the
potential inflammation that arises from the thrombosis of a retained segment.4 This should be
repeated as many times as necessary, commonly requiring in excess of 20 or more phlebectomies.9 Following each phlebectomy, pressure can be held over the site to ensure hemostasis.
Closure of the skin can be completed with steri-strip bandages, or the incisions can simply
be left open. Rarely, a single interrupted subcuticular stitch with absorbable suture such as
4–0 Monocryl is sufficient. A2×2 or 4×4 gauze can be used to cover the incision. The extremity is then dressed with a compression dressing, either with an elastic bandage or a fitted
compression hose with 20 to 30mmHg of compression. The compression should continue
for at least 48hours before removal and followed by 6 weeks of compression during the day.
Follow-up is arranged for the patient in 1 to 2 weeks with imaging as needed.
COMPLICATIONS
Although rare and often benign, the surgeon should be aware of potential complications from the
procedure; divided into cutaneous, vascular, and neurological.10 Commonly, skin complications,
such as dimpling or pigmentation can occur, however blistering or infection, while rare, can also

Ambulatory (Stab) Phlebectomy 77
Figure 9.3 Avein (pearly white) is pictured and gently grasped and pulled from the subcutaneous tissue.
occur. Bleeding can also occur resulting in ecchymosis or hematoma formation. Additionally, the
improper application of the compressive elastic bandage can lead to pain and soft tissue injury
if placed too tight. The local anesthetic may lead to an allergic reaction especially when given in
large quantities such as with concomitant saphenous ablation. Local thrombophlebitis can occur
from thrombosis of remnant varix. Very rarely, nerve injury to the saphenous, sural, or branches
of the peroneal can occur, although the majority of nerve injuries are often sensory.
11
TRANSILLUMINATED POWERED PHLEBECTOMY
Transilluminated powered phlebectomy (TIPP) was developed in 1996 as the TriVex system
utilizing three technologies to complete the dissection.12 Often using the same incision as the
ablation of the greater saphenous vein, an endoscopic device is first used to transilluminate
the subcutaneous varicosities and deliver tumescent anesthesia.
12
Aseparate device, an endoscopic powered tissue dissector, is then delivered through an opposing incision, which contains a rotating blade which destroys and aspirates the varicose veins.12 Initial studies were
promising, as early results demonstrated efficacy and required a decreased number of incisions
and shorter operative time.13 However, further studies including a meta-analysis by Luebke
et al found that despite the decreased number of incisions and operative time, there was an
increased incidence of calf hematoma and higher pain scores with the TIPP compared to the
conventional stab phlebectomy technique.
14,15
In actuality, the relative benefits and drawbacks
of the TIPP have not been consistently demonstrated in future studies. Arandomized control
trial by Aremu et al, comparing 100 limbs with conventional stab phlebectomy to 88 limbs
with TIPP found that TIPP had significantly less incisions (5 vs. 29), but there was no difference in operative time. In their study there was no difference in pain score, bruising, numbness,
or overall satisfaction.
16
Aseparate randomized control trial from Chetter et al had similar

78 William Duong and David Rigberg
findings regarding operative time and number of incisions but found that bruising and pain
were significantly higher in the TIPP groin, with a greater negative impact on quality of life
and recovery time.
17
Given the mixed data, need for additional equipment, and learning curve,
this has led to the recommendation that TIPP should be reserved in select cases, for example,
in patients with a large number of varicosities, reoperations, or patients with obesity.
18
STAGING OF PHLEBECTOMY
Although ambulatory phlebectomy is often completed in conjunction with ablation of axial
reflux, it does not necessarily need to be completed within the same operation. Treatment of
axial reflux within the greater saphenous vein initially may decrease the pressure within the
tributary veins and cause them to shrink, making them more appropriate for sclerotherapy
and obviating the need for stab phlebectomy.
9
Thus, staging of the two procedures allows
the practitioner to potentially decrease the extent of the procedure and potentially avoid
additional ones.
19
On the other hand, combining the procedures leads to fewer office visits
and less anesthetic at the cost of increased procedure time with potentially increased recovery time.
The literature is conflicted on the benefit of one approach over the other. Monahan
studied 45 patients and 222 varicose veins in the treatment of greater saphenous vein insufficiency with radiofrequency ablation without treating the varicose veins directly. He found
that 88.7% of varicose veins decreased in size, with 28.4% of veins spontaneously resolved.
Of the veins that resolved, 41.9% were above the knee and 25.6% were below the knee.
20
This was supported by a retrospective study by Welch, who reviewed 184 endovenous ablation procedures, and of the 155 patients who had total occlusion or partial patency of the
greater saphenous vein, only 25.2% went on to receive subsequent stab phlebectomy for
persistent symptomatic varicosities.
21
Similarly, Schanzer et al studied 86 lower extremities with endovenous ablation alone and found that only 41.8% of extremities required a
second stage procedure, with complete resolution of varicosities in 41.8% extremities.
22
On the other hand, other studies, such as Harlander-Locke et al, have found concomitant
phlebectomy to be safe and effective for patients, particularly those with refluxing tributary
veins >3mm.
23
Carradice et al was the first to complete a randomized control trial comparing stab phlebectomy in the concomitant or staged format. They randomized 50 patients to endovenous
laser therapy alone or endovenous laser therapy with concomitant ambulatory phlebec-
24
tomy.
While there was an increase in average procedure time, there was no difference in
post-procedural pain. Furthermore, median Venous Clinical Severity Score at 3 months (0
vs. 2) was lower for the concomitant procedure as well as lower Aberdeen Varicose Vein
Questionnaire scores at 6 weeks (7.9 vs. 13.5) and 3 months (2 vs. 9.6).
24
There were no dif-
ferences in these scores at 1year.
The AVULS study, Ambulatory Varicosity Avulsion Later or Synchronized, is the largest
randomized control trial to date and is by Lane et al.
25
With 101 recruited patients, they
compared quality of life and clinical outcomes between staged and concomitant phlebectomies. 36% of the delayed group required further treatment compared with only 2% of
the simultaneous group. Although both groups had a decrease in the Aberdeen Varicose
Vein Questionnaire, the simultaneous group had a greater decrease by 5.48 at 6 weeks,
although no difference was seen at 6 or 12 months. Quality of life (using EuroQol 5 level)
was also improved in the simultaneous group at 6 weeks (0.866 vs. 0.773), but this difference

Ambulatory (Stab) Phlebectomy 79
disappeared at future follow-ups. Interestingly, of the patients who had been recruited for the
trial and refused participation, 95% cited wanting a single sitting treatment as their reason.
25
Saphenous ablation has also been performed with a concomitant TIPP, as studied by Obi
26
et al.
As expected, there was a greater improvement in Venous Clinical Severity Score with
the ablation plus phlebectomy group compared to the ablation alone (3.8 vs. 3.2). Notably,
the powered phlebectomy group did have a higher incidence of hematoma (7.8% vs. 1.2%)
and superficial thrombosis (6.4% vs. 2.8%).
26
One concerning finding was a potentially increased rate of endovenous heat-induced thrombosis in patients undergoing concomitant procedures. In Hicks et al’s retrospective study of
299 patients undergoing radiofrequency ablation with and without stab phlebectomy, endovenous heat-induced thrombosis occurred more often in concomitant procedures (14% vs. 6%),
with an odds ratio of 3.46 on multivariate analysis.27 Hicks hypothesized the increased pain
from phlebectomy may have led to decreased activity level and thus increased risk of thrombosis. Worsened venous disease requiring the additional phlebectomy may also be contributive.
27
A meta-analysis of 15 studies comparing concomitant versus staged treatment of varicose veins by Aherne et al was completed in 2020. Overall disease severity, measured by
Venous Clinical Severity Score, and quality of life, measured by the Aberdeen Varicose Vein
Questionnaire, both favored the concomitant group when measured at 3 months and between
3 and 12 months.
28
There was no difference in rates of deep venous thrombosis or complica-
tion rate inclusive of endovenous heat-induced thrombosis.
Ultimately, the decision to undergo a staged versus concomitant procedure is left to the
practitioner. In the specific setting of general anesthesia, it may be favorable to complete them
at the same time to reduce the dosage of anesthesia. However, with the advent of tumescence,
local anesthesia, and when completed in an office or at an outpatient surgery center, a patientcentered discussion of risk, benefit, convenience, and patient preference may be prudent to
optimize patient care.
CONCLUSIONS
The treatment of varicose veins has evolved over time to the refined technique of ambulatory stab phlebectomy by Dr. Muller. It has become the gold standard for the treatment of
this subset of chronic venous disease. Although there can be variability in anesthetic choice,
procedural method, or even staging of the procedure, thorough discussion with the patient
can ensure optimal outcomes.
REFERENCES
1. Piazza G. Varicose veins. Circulation. 2014;130(7):582–587. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.
113.008331
2. Hamdan A. Management of varicose veins and venous insufficiency. JAMA. 2012;308(24):2612–
2621. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.111352
3. Moore’s Vascular and Endovascular Surgery (9th ed.). Accessed February20, 2023. www.elsevier.com/books/moores-vascular-and-endovascular-surgery/moore/978-0-323-48011-6
4. Kabnick LS, Ombrellino M. Ambulatory phlebectomy. Semin Interv Radiol. 2005;22(3):218–
224. doi:10.1055/s-2005-921955
5. Ramelet AA, Weiss RA. Principles and technique of ambulatory phlebectomy. In: Advanced
Techniques in Dermatologic Surgery. CRC Press, 2006.
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