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232 S. Vanukuru et al.
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polymers with molecules bearing thiol groups. The thiol groups form disulphide
bridges with the cysteine-rich glycoprotein in mucins. Thiolated chitosan is an
example of mucoadhesives of the second generation, whose mucoadhesive properties are superior to unmodified chitosan. Chitosan-N-acetylcysteine conjugate has
recently been commercialised as Lacrimera® eye drops to manage dry eye syndrome
(Nepp et al.
approaches to design mucoadhesives of the second generation have been proposed
over the last decade. These include polymers and colloidal particles funct ionalised
with acryloyl (Davidovich-Pinhas and Bianco-Peled
(Agibayeva et
(Kolawole et al. 2019b), catechol (Kim et al. 2015), N-hydroxy(sulpho)succinimide
ester (Leichner et al. 2019) and aldehyde groups (Brotherton et al. 2022). All these
materials are able to form covalent bonds with mucins via thiol-ene click chemistry
(acryloyls, methacryloyls and maleimides), dynamic covalent bonds with 1,2-cysdiols in carbohydrate fragments of mucins (phenylboronic acid), or reactions with
amino groups of lysine and arginine present in mucins (catechol, N-hydroxy
(sulpho)succinimide esters and aldehydes). Recent progress in this area was
reviewed by Brannigan and Khutoryanskiy (
2020). In addition to thiolated polymers, several different chemical
2011), methacryloyl
al.
2020), maleimide (Tonglairoum et al. 2016), phenylboronic acid
2019).
10.3.4 Mucus-Penetrating Nanoparticles
Successful drug delivery via mucosal membranes is possible not only with the
improved dosage form retention on mucosal surfaces due to mucoadhesion but
also by using carriers with enhanced penetration through the mucus. These carriers
are often called mucus-penetrating nanoparticles. A breakthrough in the area was
made by Hanes and co-workers (Wang et al.
the mucus-penetrating properties of PEGylated nanoparticles. PEGylation is the
process by which small drug molecules, protein macromolecules or nanoparticles
are conjugated with low molecular weight polyethylene glycol (Porfiryeva et al.
2020). This is commonly used to functionalise liposomes as nanocarriers or modify
them to improve their stability and to ensure their longer systemic circulation (Suk
et al. 2016). Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a hydrophilic and non-ionic polymer that
ensures colloidal stabilisation of nanocarriers and also acts as a stealth coating,
which prevents interactions with proteins present in biological fluids. Hanes and
co-workers (Wang et al. 2008; Yang et al. 2011) have demonstrated that
nanoparticles, whose surface is decorated with oligomeric PEG (2 kDa), have
improved mucus penetration; whereas when PEG molecular weight was increased
up to 10 kDa, the nanoparticles become more mucoadhesive and less penetrating.
PEGylated nanocarriers have received interest for drug delivery to the lung
(Costabile et al. 2020), the eye (Schopf et al. 2015), the gastrointestinal tract
(Mahlert et al. 2019) and from nose-to-brain (Porfiryeva et al. 2021).
PEGylation is regarded as an important advancement to increase mucus penetra-
tion. However, the drawbacks of PEGylation such as anti-PEG antibody formation
2008; Yang et al. 2011), who reported
10 Transmucosal Drug Delivery: Main Physiological Features and Modern Approaches 233
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even in people who have never been treated with PEGylated drugs are of concern.
Alternatives to PEG which are similar in physicochemical properties and safe for
humans are being extensively studied (Khutoryanskiy 2018). Different polymers
were explored for their mucus-penetrating properties including some poly
(2-oxazolines), polysarcosine, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(2-hydroxyethylacrylate),
polybetains and poly(N-vinylpyrrolidone) (Khutoryanskiy
2022).
2018; Mohammed et al.
10.4 Conclusion and Future Trends
TDD offers a viable alternative to enteral drug administration with several potential
advantages. The difficulty of oral drug delivery is that bioavailability is affected by
the possible extensive metabolism in the liver before reaching the site of action.
Therefore, TDD is an effective drug delivery approach especially since mucosal
tissues are widely present in the body. The advantage is that the drug is delivered
specifically to the site of action, which increases bioavailability, therefore the dose
can be reduced. Dose reduction and reduced dosage regimen will enhance patient
compliance.
The disadvantage of TDD is that the drug should cross the thick and viscous
mucus layer before diffusion through the epithelium. More efficient drug delivery
across the mucus barrier can be improved by using mucoadhesive dosage forms.
Mucoadhesion increases the retention time within the mucosal layer; this is useful as
it increases the chances for drug permeation across the mucosal membranes via
diffusion. Mucoadhesive polymers are being investigated for their safety and their
mucoadhesive nature to develop drug delivery systems. Research has shown that
some formulations are typically suitable for a specific drug delivery route, for
example, tablets for buccal and suppositories for rectal delivery. Furthermore, each
route has its own physiological challenges, for example, vaginal delivery is highly
uncomfortable for women during menstruation. Nasal delivery is not efficient if the
patient develops cold symptoms which can lead to excessive mucus production.
Body site pH and other physiological features also impact formulation decisions.
The use of nanocarriers, whose surface is decorated with short-chain PEG or other
stealthy polymers, is a new trend in transmucosal drug delivery. These dosage forms
exhibit enhanced mucus-penetrating properties and can be formulated as
nanoparticles, liposomes and micelles. Mucus-penetrating properties of dosage
forms are opposite to mucoadhesion. Mucus-penetrating carriers are characterised
by minimised interaction with the component of mucus gel to facilitate their better
penetration, whereas mucoadhesive dosage forms experience attractive interactions
leading to their immobilisation. At the moment, there is a lack of in vivo studies
offering a valid comparison between mucoadhesive and mucus-penetrating
nanocarriers to demonstrate which strategy offers better opportunities for
transmucosal drug delivery.
234 S. Vanukuru et al.
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Chapter 11
https://t.me/med1917
Nanomedicines for Delivery Across
the Blood–Brain Barrier
Aikaterini Lalatsa, Debanjan Das, and Karim Osouli-Bostanabad
11.1 The Blood–Brain Barrier (BBB): Concept
and Physiology
Neurological diseases, such as cancers, neurodegenerative conditions, infections,
pain, psychiatric disorders, multiple sclerosis and epilepsy are the leading causes of
disability, morbidity and mortality affecting nearly one in six worldwide and one in
three in Europe at some point of their lives (Masserini 2013). At any time, 1.5 billion
people worldwide are suffering from some form of central nervous system disorder
(WHO 2006), with this number estimated to reach 2 billion as populations grow and
age. The prevalence of major disabling neurological disorders will continue to
increase steeply if curative treatments fail to emerge. Globally the burden of
A. Lalatsa (✉)
CRUK Formulation Unit, Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Nanomedicine (BioN) Lab, Institute of Pharmacy and
Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
e-mail: aikaterini.lalatsa@strath.ac.uk
D. Das
Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Nanomedicine (BioN) Lab, Institute of Pharmacy and
Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Bayer LLC, Global R&D Consumer Health, Formulation Development, Morristown, NJ, USA
K. Osouli-Bostanabad
Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Nanomedicine (BioN) Lab, Institute of Pharmacy and
Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
Biomaterials, Bioengineering and Nanomedicine (BioN) Lab, Institute of Biomedical and
Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of
Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024
I. F. Uchegbu et al. (eds.), Fundamentals of Pharmaceutical Nanoscience,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-59478-6_11
241
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