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Medicinal
241
https://t.me/medicina_free
Plants Used for the Treatment and Management of Bilharziasis and Other…
ITexLi.113291
Scientific name Pharmacological
properties
Euphorbia
schinzii Pax
Faurea saligna
Harv
Flacourtia indica
(Burm.f) Merr
Antimicrobial, antidiabetic, anthelmintic
hepatoprotective, antiviral,
*anthelmintic
(antitrypanosomal and
antileishmanial), antiinflammatory,
antimalarial, antiplasmodial, antioxidant
and anti-asthmatic
activities.
Gymnosporia
senegalensis Loes
Maytenus
senegalensis
(Lam) Exell
Khaya
anthotheca
(Welw.) C. DC.
Khaya nyasica
Bak.f.
*Anthelmintic
(antileishmanial),
antioxidant, antiviral,
antibacterial and antifungal
activities.
Antimicrobial, antioxidant,
*anthelmintic
(antitrypanosomal and
antileishmanial),
antiplatelet, antiviral and
anti-plasmodial activities.
Hydnora
abyssinica A.
Braun ex
Schweinf.
Antibacterial, antioxidant,
anti-diarrhoeal,
antiglycation and
antifungal activities.
Hydnora
solmsiana
Dinter
Kigellia africana
(Lam.) Benth.
Kigelia pinnata
(Jacq.) DC.
Antiplasmodial, antiviral,
antiulcer, anticancer, antidiarrhoeal, antimicrobial,
antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
*anthelmintic
(antitrypanosomal), effects
on reproductive system and
anti-inflammatory
activities.
Landolphia kirkii
Dyer ex Hook. f.
Lannea discolor
(Sond.) Engl.
*Anthelmintic
(nematicidal),
antibacterial,
antimycobacterial,
antifungal, antioxidant and
antiplasmodial activities.
Biological target Toxicological
evaluation
no records found no records foundno records found
Trypanosome:
Trypanosoma
brucei brucei,
Moderately toxic
LC
467.31 39.01 μg/
50
ml
Trypanosoma
brucei rhodesiense,
Trypanosoma
cruzi
Leishmania:
Leishmania
donovani
SafeCestodes
LC
–2185.61 872.
50
25 μg/ml
LD
> 1600 mg/kg
50
Trypanosome:
Trypanosoma
Moderately toxic LC50 -
482.19 43.49 μg/ml.
brucei
rhodesiense and
Trypanosoma
cruzi Leishmania:
Leishmania
donovani
no records found Weak or low toxicity or
mildly toxic
LD
> 1600 mg/kg
50
Trypanosomes:
Trypanosoma
Safe
LD
> 5000 mg/kg
50
brucei and
Trypanosoma
bruceirhodesiense
no records found no records foundno records found
Weak or low toxicity orCestodes
mildly toxic
LC
values ranging
50
0.408 mg/mL to
>1.0 mg/mL
Reference
[114]no records found no records foundAntifungal activity.
[19, 66, 115–
119]
[19, 23,
66, 120–122]
[19, 66, 116,
123, 124]
[125–128]
[66, 129–
131]
[23, 34,
35, 132]
17
Medicinal Plants – Chemical, Biochemical, and Pharmacological Approaches
242
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Scientific name Pharmacological
properties
Lannea edulis
(Sond.) Engl.
*Anthelmintic, anti-human
immunodeficiency virus,
antihyperglycemic,
antihyperlipidemic,
antimalarial, antimicrobial,
antioxidant and
cytotoxicity activities.
Lecaniodiscus
*Anthelmintic activity. Cestodes no records found [23]
fraxinifolias Bak.
Loranthus on
no records found no records found no records found
Dichrostachys
cinerea,
Mondia whitei
(Hook.f.) Skeels
Antidepressant, antidiarrheal, antiepileptic,
antibacterial, aphrodisiac,
anti-convulsant, proerectile, antimicrobial,
tyrosinase-inhibitory, antiinflammatory, androgenic
*anthelmintic, antityrosinase, antioxidant,
anticancer antispermatogenic and
antifertility activities.
Mucuna coriacea
no records found no records found no records found
Baker subsp.
irritans (Burtt
Davy) Verdc.
Musa sp. Antioxidant, antibacterial,
antiviral, anti-ulcerogenic,
antithrombotic, anti-
allergic, anti-inflammatory,
antiallergenic, anti-
diabetic, diuretic,
mutagenecity, wound
healing, antidiarrhoeal,
*anthelmintic, antimalarial,
anti-snake venom
and vasodilatory
activities.
Ozoroa reticulata
(Baker f.) R.
Fern. & A. Fern.
Antimicrobial, cytotoxic,
antibacterial and
*anthelmintic activities.
Ozoroa insignis
Del. subsp.
reticulata (Bak.
f.) Gillett
Heeria reticulata
Engl.
Peltophorum
africanum Sond.
Antibacterial, antifungal,
antiviral, antioxidant and
*anthelmintic activities.
Biological target Toxicological
evaluation
Cestodes Safe
LD
> 6000 mg/kg
50
Schistosomes Safe
LD
> 5000 mg/kg
50
Nematodes:
Haemonchus
Safe
LD
> 5000 mg/kg
50
contortus and
Trichostrongylus
colubriformis
Cestodes
Schistosomes
Highly toxic
LC
ranging 2.21–
50
10.63 μg/ml
Schistosomes Weak or low toxicity
LC
ranging 882–
50
1060 106 μg/ml
Reference
[23, 36, 100]
[133–136]
[137–141]
[23, 31, 142–
145]
[23, 65, 100]
18
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Plants Used for the Treatment and Management of Bilharziasis and Other…
ITexLi.113291
Scientific name Pharmacological
Phaseolus
vulgaris L
Piliostigma
thonningii
(Schumach.)
Milne-Redh.
Pogonarthria
squarrosa
(Licht.) Pilg.
Pterocarpus
angolensis DC.
Ricinus communisLAnticonceptive,
Sansevieria
hyacinthoides
(L.) Druce
Sclerocarya
birrea (A. Rich.)
Hochst. subsp.
caffra (Sond.)
Kokwaro
properties
Hypocholesterolemic,
nephroprotective,
anticancer, antihypertensive, diuretic,
neuroprotective,
antifertility, analgesic,
antibacterial,
hepatoprotective,
antiobesity,
osteoprotective, antiinflammatory, antioxidant,
antidiabetic, *anthelmintic,
immunostimulatory,
cardio-protective,
litholytic, trypsin and αamylase inhibitor activities.
*Anthelmintic
(antileishmanial), antioxidative, antiviral,
antipyretic, antibacterial
and anti-inflammatory
activities.
*Anthelmintic,
antibacterial, antiplasmodial, antiinflammatory and
antifungal activities.
antioxidant, antidiabetic,
antifertility, antiinflammatory, antioxidant,
*anthelmintic,
hepatoprotective,
insecticidal, woundhealing, anti-asthmatic,
lipolytic,
immunomodulatory
and antimicrobial
activities.
*Anthelmintic,
antibacterial, antifungal
and antioxidant activities.
Anti-diarrhoeal, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, antiplasmodial, *anthelmintic,
antimicrobial, antioxidant,
antihypertensive, anticonvulsant and
antinociceptive activities.
Biological target Toxicological
Nematodes:
Trichostrongylus
colubriformis and
Teladorsagia
circumcincta
Cestodes
Nematodes:
Haemonchus
contortus
no records found no records foundno records found
Nematodes Safe
Nematode:
Caenorhabditis
elegans
Nematode:
Haemonchus
contortus
evaluation
Safe
LD
up to 2000 mg/kg
50
Safe
LD
> 5000 mg/kg in
50
rats.
Weak or low toxicity orCestodes
mildly toxic
LC
ranging 478–
50
1320 266 μg/ml.
LD
–8000 mg/kg
50
Safe
LC
–
50
1112.37 210.04 μg/ml.
Reference
[146–151]
[23, 51, 152–
154]
[23, 100,
155–157]
[158–161]
[31, 38,no records found
110, 162–
164]
[19, 51,
66, 165]
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Medicinal Plants – Chemical, Biochemical, and Pharmacological Approaches
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Scientific name Pharmacological
properties
Securidaca
longipedunculata
Fresen
Senna italica
Mill. subsp.
micrantha
(Brenan) Lock
Cassia italica
(Mill.) F.W.
Andr.
Antibacterial, anti-
plasmodial, *anthelmintic
and antifungal activities.
Antibacterial,
hypoglycemic effect anti-
inflammatory, antipyretic,
uteruscontractions,
*anthelminthic,
antioxidant,
antiproliferative, analgesic,
prostaglandin (PG) release,
antineoplastic and antiviral
activities.
Senna petersiana
(Bolle) Lock
Cassia petersiana
Bolle
*Anthelmintic,
antibacterial, antifungal,
cyclooxygenase (COX)
inhibitory, antiviral and
antimicrobial activities.
Senna singueana
(Delile) Lock
Cassia singueana
Del
*Anthelmintic, antioxidant,
antiplasmodial, antiulcer,
antipyretic, anti-
inflammatory and analgesic
activities.
Solanum
campylacanthum
Solanum
delegoense Dunal
S. incanum
*Anthelmintic,
antinociceptive effect,
antipyretic, analgesic,
antimicrobial, anti-
inflammatory and anti-
cytotoxic activities.
Steganotaenia
araliacea
Hochst.
*Anthelmintic
(antileishmanial and
larvicidal), antimitotic,
antitubulin, uterotonic,
antioxidant, antibacterial,
diuretic and antiplasmodial
activities.
Strychnos
cocculoides Bak.
Termilia sericea
Burch ex. DC
Antimalarial and
antioxidant activities.
Antibacterial, antifungal,
anti-neurodegenerative,
anticancer, antioxidant,
antiviral, anti-HIV, anti-
fungal, antibacterial,
anticancer, lipolytic,
wound healing,
*anthelmintic
(antiprotozoal), anti-
inflammatory and anti-
oxidant activities.
Terminalia
brachystemma
*Anthelmintic, antifungal
and antioxidant activities.
Welw.
Biological target Toxicological
Reference
evaluation
Nematode:
Haemonchus
Moderately toxic
LD
value of 771 mg/kg
50
[51, 100,
155, 157, 166]
contortus
Nematodes:
Haemonchus
Safe
LD
> 5000 mg/kg
50
[167–175]
contortus
Nematode:
no records found [176, 177]
Caenorhabditis
elegans
Cestodes Safe
LD
Cestodes Safe
LD
–2150 mg/kg
50
> 2000 mg/kg
50
[23, 178, 179]
[23, 180–
184]
Cestodes no records found [23, 185–187]
no records found no records found [31, 188,
189]
Protozoa:
Trichomonas
Toxic
LC
50
< 300 μg/ml.
[19, 66, 190–
196]
vaginalis
Cestodes no records found [23, 197,
198]
20
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Plants Used for the Treatment and Management of Bilharziasis and Other…
ITexLi.113291
Scientific name Pharmacological
properties
Toddalia asiatica
(L.) Lam.
Toddalia
aculeata Pers.
Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, anti-tumor,
antifeedant analgesic, antiHIV, anti-plasmodial,
antiviral, *anthelmintic,
analgesic, antiplatelet
aggregation, wound
healing, anticancer,
spasmolytic activity and
skin whitening activities.
Trichilia emetica
Vahl subsp.
emetic
Trichilia roka
Chiov.
*Anthelmintic
(antischistosomal and
antitrypanosomal), antidiarrhoeal, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-infective, antiinflammatory, antiviral,
anticonvulsant, antifeedant,
anti-plasmodial, antitussive,
antimutagenic, bactericidal
hepatoprotective and
growth regulating activities.
Trichodesma
ambacense Welw.
subsp. hockii (De.
Wild) Brummitt
Vangueria
infausta Burch.
subsp. infausta
Antibacterial, antifungal,
antimycobacterial, antiinflammatory, antioxidant,
*anthelmintic
(antileishmanial), antiplasmodial, antifeedant and
prostaglandin synthesis
inhibitory activities.
Vernonia
amydalina Del
Antimicrobial, antimalarial,
antithrombotic, antioxidant,
antipyretic, analgesic, antidiabetic, laxative,
hypoglycemic, anticancer,
*antihelmintic, antifertility,
anti-inflammatory,
cathartic, antifungal and
antibacterial activities.
Vernonia
philipsoniana
Lawaltree
Vigna
unguiculata (L.)
Walp.
Antioxidant, *anthelmintic,
antibacterial, anti-diabetic,
anti-depressant, antisickling, antifungal,
antiviral, antimicrobial,
antinociceptive,
hypocholesterolemic,
thrombolytic and
hypolipidaemic activities.
Biological target Toxicological
evaluation
Protozoa:
Ichthyophthirius
multifiliis
Cestodes
Schistosomes
Trypanosomes:
Weak or low toxicity or
mildly toxic
LD
> 1000 mg/kg
50
Safe
2000 < LD
50
< 5000 mg/kg
Trypanosoma
brucei
brucei and
Trypanosoma
brucei rhodesiense
no records found no records foundno records found
Leishmania:
Leishmania
donovani
Moderately toxic
LC
values ranging
50
338–416 28.3 μg/mL
SafeCestodes
LD
–5152.3 mg/kg.
50
3721 mg/kg.
LD
50
no records found no records foundno records found
Earthworms:
Edrilus euginiae
Safe
LD
> 2000 mg/kg
50
Reference
[199–206]
[23, 207–
212]
[39, 100,
101, 213–
217]
[23, 218–
220]
[221–225]
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Scientific name Pharmacological
properties
Warburgia
no records found no records found no records found
Biological target Toxicological
evaluation
Reference
sulcata
Ximenia caffra
Sond.
*Anthelmintic, anti-
amoebic, antibacterial,
Cestodes Highly Toxic
LC
–11.25 μg/ml
50
[23,142, 226–
229]
antigonococcal agent,
antifungal, antiinflammatory, antioxidant,
anti-parasitic, antiproliferative, insecticidal,
HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
(RT) inhibitory and nonmutagenic activities.
Zanthoxylum
chalybeum Engl.
Anti-plasmodial,
antibacterial, *anthelmintic
Nematodes:
Ascaris suum
Safe
LD
> 5000 mg/kg
50
[230–235]
(antitrypanosomal),
antifungal antiviral, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlidemic and antimeasles virus activities.
Ziziphus
mucronata Willd
Antimicrobial, antiviral,
anti-diabetic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anti-plasmodial,
Schistosomes
Nematode:
Caenorhabditis
elegans
Safe
LC
> 1000 μg/ml
50
LD
> 5000 g/kg
50
[23, 236,
237]
*anthelmintic and antianemic activities.
In vitro experiments were carried-out and reported by Mølgaard et al. [23] demonstrating dose-dependent anthelmintic
activity. Anthelmintic activities reported were conducted on a number of biological targets (Figure 6): Cestodes;
Earthworms: Pheretima posthuma, Edrilus euginiae, Eisinia fetida; Leishmania: Leishmania donovani; Nematode:
Ascaris suum, Ascaridia galli, Caenorhabditis elegans, Chabertia ovina, Cooperia spp., Haemonchus contortus,
Trichostrongylus spp., Trichostrongylus colubriformis, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Teladorsagia spp; Protozoa:
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, Trichomonas vaginalis, T. b. rhodesiense; Schistosomes: Schistosoma haematobium;
Trypanosome: Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma cruzi. More studies
should be carried out on more prevalent biological targets such as Schistosomes: Schistosoma haematobium.
* signifies the major pharmacological activity attributed by the different plant species of plants which is the anthelmintic
activity.
Table 2.
Pharmacological and toxicological evaluation of medicinal plants used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other
parasitic infections in Zimbabwe.
Scientific name Anthelmintic activity
Abrus precatorius
Acacia karoo
AIbizia antunesiana
Cassia abbreviata
Celtis africana
Dicoma anomala
22
Lethal concentrations after 1 h
a
a
Schistosomes: Stem 1.5 Root 0.6 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves 3.1 mg/ml Root 17 mg/ml
c
Schistosomes: Leaves 103 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves and stem 16.8 mg/ml Root bark 6.3
c
Schistosomes: Root bark 100 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Root and root bark 17.1 mg/ml
b
Cestodes: Leaves 63.0 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Root 31.0 mg/ml
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Plants Used for the Treatment and Management of Bilharziasis and Other…
ITexLi.113291
Anthelmintic activityScientific name
Lethal concentrations after 1 h
a
Elephantorrhiza goetzei
Gymnosporia
senegalensis
Maytenus senegalensis
Lannea discolor
Lannea edulis
Lecaniodiscus
fraxinifolias
Ozoroa reticulata
Ozoroa insignis
Peltophorum africanum
Piliostigma thonningii
Pterocarpus angolensis
Senna singueana
Cassia singueana
Solanum
campylacanthum
Solanum delegoense
Steganotaenia araliacea
Terminalia
brachystemma
Trichilia emetica
Trichilia roka
Vernonia amydalina
Ziziphus mucronata
a
All cestodes: schistosomules died.
b
Some of the cestodes: schistosomules died.
c
No cestodes: schistosomules died.
Schistosomules of Schistosoma mansoni, Cestodes of Hymenolepis dimin.
Cestodes: Stem bark 4.2 mg/ml fruits 12.1 mg/ml Root 17.4 Leaves and stem
15.9 mg/ml
a
Schistosomes: Stem bark 0.8 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves and stem 25.0 mg/ml Root 25.0 mg/ml Root bark 2.5 mg/ml
b
Schistosomes: Root bark 100 mg/ml
b
Cestodes: Leaves and stem 10 mg/ml Root and root bark 12.9 mg/ml
b
Cestodes: Leaves and stem 4.0 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves and stem 6.3 mg/ml Root 6.4 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves 2.5 mg/ml Schistosomes: 34.0 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Stem bark 51.0 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Root bark 0.8 mg/ml
a
Schistosomes: Root bark 26.3 mg/ml Leaves + stem 25.3 mg/ml
c
Schistosomes: Leaves and stem 100 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Root and root bark 30.8 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves 102.0 mg/ml Bark 51.3 mg/ml
c
Schistosomes: Leaves 102, stem 117 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves ad stem 15.9 mg/ml Root bark 17.2 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves 50.2 mg/ml
a
Cestodes; Leaves and stem 62.7 mg/ml
a
Cestodes: Leaves 13.4 mg/ml, Root 33.3 mg/ml, Fruit 1 66.5 mg/ml, Fruit 2
15.4 mg/ml
b
Cestodes: Root and root bark 84.7 mg/ml
b
Schistosomes: Root 6.25 mg/ml
b
Trypanosomes: Leaves Trypanosoma brucei
brucei - 14.9 mg/ml and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense - 8.6 mg/ml
b
Cestodes: Root 1.7 mg/ml Root bark 59.5 mg/ml
c
Schistosomes: Root bark 101 mg/ml
Table 3.
Anthelmintic screening of Zimbabwean plants traditionally used against schistosomiasis [23].
3.3 Screening
Retrieved articles were first screened based on the titles and abstracts for relevance
to the study excluding articles that reported on malaria and on veterinary use of
medicinal plants. For example, we excluded articles on bovine mastitis and Oriental
medicines, although they appeared in the search results. However, articles that
23
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Figure 2.
Growth habit of medicinal plant species used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections in
Zimbabwe.
Figure 3.
Parasites managed or treated using medicinal plants in Zimbabwe.
included both malaria and schistosomiasis were considered. The eligible full articles
were then assessed further for inclusion in the study using the inclusion/exclusion
criteria.
24
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Figure 4.
Mode of preparation of medicinal plant species used to treat and manage bilharziasis and other parasitic infections
in Zimbabwe.
Plants Used for the Treatment and Management of Bilharziasis and Other…
Figure 5.
Plant parts used for medicinal preparations used for the management of bilharziasis and other parasitic infections
in Zimbabwe.
3.4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Full-text articles that at least reported on ethnobotany of Zimbabwean medicinal
plants written in English and published in peer-reviewed journals, reports, books,
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Figure 6.
Biological targets of tested parasites of medicinal plants reported.
theses and dissertations dated 31 December 2020 were considered. All publishing
years were included without any geographical restrictions. Articles that reported data
not relevant to the study or reviews or those not written in English were excluded
from the study.
3.5 Data extraction
A data collection tool was designed in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation,
USA) to capture data on different aspects of Zimbabwean medicinal plants. Three
reviewers independently extracted relevant data from the included articles regarding
the ethnobotany of Zimbabwean medicinal plants. For ethnobotanical data, the diseases or ailments managed, parts used and mode of preparation and administration
were captured. The collected data were checked for completeness and processed
independently by two other reviewers.
4. Results and discussion
From the several scientific papers reviewed based on ethnobotanical surveys of
different areas of Zimbabwe, the results are presented in the following sections.
4.1 Literature search and publications
A total of 750 reports were retrieved out of which 138 met the inclusion criteria
and were reviewed. Most of the articles were published in the 2010–2019 decade,
indicating a lot of research is being done as compared to the preceding decades. This
could be due to: (1) the growing need for more effective and less toxic medicinal
products of plant origin, (2) emerging antimicrobial resistance that has rendered most
26
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