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Histopathology ofCutaneous Adverse Drug Reactions
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Skin Tests inEvaluating Drug
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Eruptions
MargaridaGonçalo
Abbreviations
ACE Angiotensin-converting enzyme
AGEP Acute generalized exanthematous
pustulosis
CADR Cutaneous adverse drug reactions
DRESS Drug reaction with eosinophilia and
systemic symptoms
EGF Epidermal growth factor
FDE Fixed drug eruption
IDT Intradermal tests
MED Minimal erythema dose
MPE Maculopapular exanthema
NSAIDs Nonsteroidal anti-inammatory
drugs NSAIDs
PaT Patch tests
SDRIFE Symmetrical drug-related intertrigi-
nous and exural dermatitis
SJS/TEN Stevens–Johnson syndrome/toxic
epidermal necrolysis
SPT Skin prick tests
M. Gonçalo (*)
Department of Dermatology, University Hospital and
Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra,
Coimbra, Portugal
e-mail: mgoncalo@fmed.uc.pt
1 Introduction
Skin tests are used to study immune mediated
hypersensitivity reactions to exogenous allergens, such as drugs. They are a useful component
in the allergological evaluation of cutaneous
adverse drug reactions (cADR) in which either an
IgE mediated (immediate type hypersensitivity)
or T-cell mediated (delayed-type hypersensitivity) is suspected. Collectively, these reactions
have been traditionally classied as type B or
unexpected and idiosyncratic drug reactions. The
role of skin tests in other drug-induced reactions
such as in drug-induced lupus erythematosus,
drug-induced immunobullous diseases, druginduced vasculitis, or lichenoid drug reactions
has not been demonstrated. Similarly, skin tests
are not useful in adverse reactions arising from
the pharmacologic mechanisms of the drug (type
A or augmented reactions). These would include
bradykinin-mediated angioedema related to use
of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, mucocutaneous erosions due to methotrexate toxicity, or papulopustular eruptions induced
by EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptors)
inhibitors in cancer therapy (Gonçalo and
Bruynzeel 2020).
Skin tests are intended to reproduce locally, in
a controlled manner, the drug eruption that had
originally involved a greater extent of the body
(Gonçalo 2019). There are a variety of skin tests
available for the evaluation of drug reactions and
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
H. Y. Lee, D. Creamer (eds.), Drug Eruptions, Updates in Clinical Dermatology,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09388-3_4
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M. Gonçalo
the choice is based on the underlying cADR phenotype and mechanism. Skin prick tests (SPT)
and intradermal tests (IDT) with immediate readings are indicated for the evaluation of IgE mediated or type I hypersensitivity reactions such as
urticaria and anaphylaxis, whereas IDT with
delayed readings and epicutaneous patch tests
(PaT) are indicated for the evaluation of nonimmediate T-cell-mediated drug eruptions. These
include maculopapular exanthema (MPE); drug
reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS); Stevens–Johnson syndrome/
toxic epidermal necrolysis; and acute generalized
exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP). Lesional skin
testing (open tests or patch testing on lesional
skin) are useful for the evaluation of xed drug
eruptions and photopatch tests are utilized for
drug-induced photosensitivity.
Nonetheless, there are limitations with skin
tests. False-negative readings can occur as a result
of several factors: (1) only a small amount of the
drug is applied on a localized area; (2) potential
cofactors (such as viral infection and lupus are)
that may have been present during the original
drug eruption are usually absent; (3) in skin testing, the body is exposed to the drug via a different
route, that is, percutaneously instead of orally or
intravenously; (4) percutaneous penetration of the
drug may not be high enough to trigger an immune
response; (5) cutaneous metabolism may be
unable to convert the prodrug into the allergenic
metabolites that triggered the reaction; (6) nally,
timing of the tests is essential as false-negative
results can be seen during the acute phase of the
reaction.
Despite these limitations, there are several
advantages with skin testing: (1) multiple drugs
can be evaluated simultaneously, increasing the
likelihood of a conclusive result; (2) the procedure is generally well tolerated with minimum
discomfort; (3) most skin tests are generally safe
and they can be used in severe reactions, like
DRESS, and SJS/TEN where oral provocation is
contraindicated (Gonçalo et al. 2010; Santiago
etal. 2010; Barbaud et al. 2013; Trubiano etal.
2019); (4) in addition, concurrent skin testing
with related chemicals, allows for the evaluation
of cross-reactivity and provide valuable information on safe alternatives and drugs to avoid
(Morgado etal. 2020).
2 Skin Tests forImmediate
Drug Eruptions
SPT and IDT are indicated for immediate cutaneous reactions such as drug-induced urticaria,
angioedema, or anaphylaxis. Although these have
been utilized primarily in the setting of betalactam induced reactions, skin tests can be useful
in other drug classes such as non-beta-lactam
antibiotics, heparins, and radiocontrast media
among others (Barbaud 2014; Brockow et al.
2005, 2013). These tests have little role in the
study of pseudo-allergic anaphylactoid reactions,
such as those induced by nonsteroidal antiinammatory drugs (NSAIDs) as well as those
reactions which occur due to direct stimulation of
the Mas-related G-protein-coupled receptor X2
(MRGPRX2). These reactions are typically
induced by uoroquinolones, opioids, vancomycin, neuromuscular blocking agents, and iodinated radiocontrast media (Navinés-Ferrer et al.
2018; Porebski etal. 2018). Nevertheless, many
of these drugs may also induce IgE-mediated
reactions that cannot be clearly distinguished
based on clinical symptoms.
SPT is performed on the volar forearm with
drug test solutions as well as negative and positive controls comprising of 0.9% serum saline
and histamine, respectively. Skin reactions are
read at 20min, and a reaction is considered positive when the wheal is 3mm larger than the negative control or has surrounding erythema or
pseudopods (Barbaud 2014; Phillips etal. 2019).
If the initial 1/10 dilution is negative, it should be
followed within 20min, by the highest nonirritating dilution (Romano etal. 2020).
Although IDT methodology is not fully standardized, a recent consensus proposes that IDT
should be performed by injecting intradermally
0.02 mL of freshly prepared sterile drug solutions, on the volar forearm, upper arm or on the
back. IDT can only be performed with drugs that
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67
have soluble forms (Brockow etal. 2013; Barbaud
etal. 2020). These tests should start with lower
concentration (1/100 or 1/1000 in severe reactions), followed by increasing concentrations
until the maximum nonirritating dilution is
reached (Romano etal. 2020). Reactions are read
at 20min and considered positive if there is an
increase of 3mm occurs beyond the initial papule
produced by the injection of the allergen (Romano
et al. 2020; Barbaud et al. 2020). The ENDA
(European Network for Drug Allergy) and
EAACI (European Academy of Allergy and
Clinical Immunology) have recently issued a
guidance on maximum nonirritating dilutions for
performing prick and intradermal drug testing as
well as criteria for assessing positivity (Brockow
etal. 2013; Barbaud etal. 2020).
Although generally safe, SPT and IDT should
be performed in a setting where resuscitating
measures are available, in the rare occurrence of
a systemic immediate reaction.
3 Skin Tests forNonimmediate
Drug Eruptions
Intradermal tests with delayed readings and patch
testing are indicated for the evaluation of nonimmediate T-cell mediated drug eruptions, such as
MPE, DRESS, SJS/TEN, AGEP, SDRIFE, and
FDE.
It is generally recommended for patch testing
to be performed following 6weeks after the complete resolution of the cADR till 6–12 months
later. Nonetheless, positive PaT have been
reported after 10years in antibiotics and carbamazepine related nonimmediate cADRs (Barbaud
et al. 2001; Johansen et al. 2015; Pinho et al.
2017a; Braun etal. 2018; Gilissen etal. 2020).
This observation contrasts with immediate reactions where both specic IgE in the serum and
SPT reactivity tend to fade with time.
Drug PaT are performed in the same way as
for allergic contact dermatitis, with application of
the allergens in patch test chambers on the back
for 48h and reading at day 2 or 3 and day 4–7,
according to the European Society of Contact
Dermatitis (ESCD) guidelines (Gonçalo and
Bruynzeel 2020; Johansen etal. 2015).
Some drugs have already been commercialized as allergens for patch testing, mainly antimicrobials, anticonvulsants and nonsteroidal
anti-inammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Although
these commercial panels have been shown to be
safe and specic for diagnostics, they represent
only a limited number of allergens within the
extensive list of drugs that can be responsible for
nonimmediate cADR.
For patch testing to other culprits, the drug has
to be newly prepared from either the commercial
preparation used by the patient or preferably,
from the powder for parenteral use or the capsule
content. The active drug in the nal preparation
should be at 10% in petrolatum (Johansen etal.
2015). When capsules or IV powder are unavail-
able, the whole powder of the tablet can be prepared at 30% pet, but there is a risk of having
very little active drug in the nal preparation
(Brajon etal. 2014). Alternatively, the tablet can
be smashed into a ne powder and placed directly
into the test chamber with a drop of water and/or
petrolatum (Assier etal. 2017). Whenever a patch
test is positive with such a “homemade” preparation it is recommended to test serial dilutions as
well as to have at least 10–20 controls to exclude
false-positive irritant reactions. False-positive
irritant reactions have been described particularly
with the pills of spironolactone (Aldactone®),
colchicine, captopril (Lopril®), chloroquine
(Nivaquine®), celecoxib (Celebrex®) tested at
30% pet and with omeprazole (Mopral®) tested at
30% aq. (Brajon etal. 2014).
Drug PaT are considered positive when there
is at least erythema and inltration of the tested
area. Occasionally, vesicles, bullae, or pustules
can also be observed. These positive readings are
a local reproduction of the clinical and histopathological features of the acute drug eruption
(Gonçalo 2019; Gonçalo etal. 2010; Serra etal.
2011). Patch tests are highly specic and this has
been supported by the following observations:
(1) isolation of drug specic T cells from positive
PaT with similar phenotypes as those exhibited
during the acute eruption (Yawalkar etal. 2000),
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M. Gonçalo
(2) clinical and pathologic resemblance between
the PaT and the acute eruption (Gonçalo 2019;
Gonçalo etal. 2010; Serra et al. 2011), (3) their
reproducibility even after long periods (Pinho
etal. 2017a; Gilissen etal. 2020). As such, whenever a patient presents with positive PaT to a drug
that may not be apparently relevant, a careful
review of the exposure and drug history is mandatory, looking for hidden uses of the drug, a
related chemical within the possible latency
period which has resulted in cross-reactivity or to
ask for previous episodes of cADR where the
current positive PaT drug may have been involved
(past/retrospective relevance).
It is recommended to test all possible culprits
whenever a drug reaction is suspected. Widely
used analgesics and antipyretics such as
metamizole has been found to be responsible for
recurrent exanthems in the inpatient or postoperative setting (Pinho et al. 2017b). Similarly, in
DRESS, some individuals become sensitized to
new medications, especially antibiotics that are
initiated during the acute phase of the disease,
resulting in are-up reactions. If indicated, these
new drugs should also be tested in addition to the
main culprit (Santiago et al. 2020; Descamps
etal. 2010). Also, as positive patch tests can be
observed with cross-reactive drugs it is recommended that whole series of related chemicals (a
whole series of antibiotics, of proton-pump
inhibitors, etc.) should be tested to provide advice
on safe alternatives (Romano etal. 2006, 2016a).
Sensitivity of drug PaT is highly variable and
depends on both the phenotype of the cADR and
the culprit drug. Some drugs never induce positive patch tests (e.g., allopurinol or its metabolite
oxypurinol, salazopyrin) (Santiago et al. 2010;
Barbaud 2014; Vieira etal. 2004), whereas others, like carbamazepine, induce more than 80%
of positive PaT reactions in different types of
cADR (Santiago et al. 2010). It is difcult to
ascertain the real sensitivity of PaT in cADR.Drug
challenge which is the comparative gold standard
may not have been performed or is contraindicated, for example, in severe cutaneous adverse
drug reactions. In addition, patient selection in
many published studies is not well characterized
(certain or possible drug imputability, diverse
clinical phenotypes and methodologies). This has
resulted in a wide range of PaT sensitivity (from
below 10 to >75%) (Lammintausta and
KorteKangas-Savolainen 2005; Osawa et al.
1990; Barbaud etal. 1998). In general most stud-
ies have shown that, PaT are very frequently positive in drug eruptions from carbamazepine,
abacavir (Phillips etal. 2002), tetrazepam (Pirker
et al. 2002), diltiazem (Assier et al. 2020), and
pristinamycin (Barbaud et al. 2013), whereas
positive patch tests occur in 20–30% of nonimmediate CADR from aminopenicillins (Romano
et al. 2013; Pinho et al. 2017c), clindamycin
(Gilissen etal. 2020; Pereira etal. 2011) or uoroquinolones (Serra et al. 2011), and still less
often with other drugs. The addition of IDT with
late readings may increase drug PaT sensitivity,
particularly in the case of penicillins (Romano
et al. 2013), making this the most sensitive
approach for studying nonimmediate drug reactions (Barbaud 2014).
Patch test positivity is also dependent on the
phenotype of the drug eruption; positive PaT
occur in 1/3 to 1/2 of the patients with MPE
(Fig. 1a, b) and DRESS (Fig. 2a, b) (Santiago
et al. 2010; Barbaud et al. 2013). It has been
reported to be even more frequent in AGEP
(Fig.3), SDRIFE or drug-induced systemic contact dermatitis. Positive PTs are rarely seen in
SJS/TEN (<10%) (Wolkenstein etal. 1996).
There are very rare reports of systemic drug
reactions induced by patch testing. For example,
immediate reactions occurring when patch testing is incorrectly used to study anaphylaxis or
reactivation of the CADR when the suggested
patch test concentrations are not followed in
severe CADR (e.g., pristinamycin or rifampicin
in DRESS or in rare cases of AGEP) (Barbaud
2014; Shebe et al. 2014). The safety of PaT is
superior to both IDT and oral provocation, even
in cases of severe drug eruptions like SJS/TEN
and DRESS (Gonçalo etal. 2010; Santiago etal.
2010; Barbaud etal. 2013). A stepwise approach
is advocated in the evaluation of delayed reactions. Testing should start with a PaT, followed
by an IDT with a delayed reading. In nonsevere
ab
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69
Fig. 1 (a, b) Maculopapular exanthema from amoxicillin (a) with positive patch tests with amoxicillin and ampicillin
tested at 10% pet (b)
ab
Fig. 2 (a, b) Exanthema in DRESS from carbamazepine (a) with positive patch tests to carbamazepine at 10% pet (b)
cases, an oral provocation can be considered if
both skin tests are negative (Barbaud etal. 2001).
Intradermal tests for the evaluation of nonim-
mediate drug eruptions are performed in a similar
manner, as in immediate reactions, with 0.02mL
of sterile drug solutions prepared according to
the recommended concentrations (Brockow etal.
2013). Any papule at 24 h or later is considered
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M. Gonçalo
positive (Barbaud 2014). For some drugs, like
heparins and corticosteroids, later readings (after
D3) are usually needed (Fig.4a, b). Largest studies with IDT deal mostly with antibiotics (ampicillin, amoxicillin, amoxicillin–clavulanic acid)
(Romano etal. 2016b; Romano and Caubet 2014)
and have shown that IDT is more sensitive than
PaT, but false-positive reactions are more frequent with IDT than with PaT (Romano et al.
2004). Nonetheless, the IDT is still not the ideal
Fig. 3 Pustular patch test reaction to ciprooxacin
observed in a patient with AGEP
skin test as 10% of negative patients may develop
a cutaneous reaction on drug rechallenge
(Hjortlund etal. 2013).
IDT is recommended in non-immediate drug
eruptions where PaT are negative as well as exanthematous or eczematous reactions induced by
heparins, local injection reactions from, biologics
(iniximab, adalimumab, interferons) and nonimmediate iodinated radiocontrast reactions
(Barbaud 2014). Although initially believed to be
associated with higher risk of recurrence in
severe cutaneous adverse reactions and hence
contraindicated (Barbaud 2014), recent data have
suggested that IDT may be safe and a possible
modality in such cases (Trubiano etal. 2019).
Apart from conrming a possible culprit, both
IDT and PaT can be used to study cross-reactivity
among drugs with results being conrmed by
oral challenge in most instances. In delayed reactions, amoxicillin and ampicillin are crossreactive based on PaT and IDT but this
cross-reactivity rarely extends to benzylpenicillin, cephalosporins, or carbapenems (Romano
et al. 2013; Pinho etal. 2017c). Similarly, frequent cross-reactivity in skin tests occurs within
certain subgroups of cephalosporins, uoroqui-
Fig. 4 (a, b) Eczematous plaques at the injection site of
enoxaparin (a) with positive intradermal tests observed at
day 3 to several LMW heparins tested as is (enoxaparin,
dalteparin, and fraxiparin) and negative reaction to
fondaparinux, where there is only purpura with no inltration (b)
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nolones, pristinamycin, and virginiamycin
(Barbaud etal. 2004), as well as among heparins,
radiocontrast media and corticosteroids (Romano
etal. 2005). However, skin tests seldom express
cross-reactivity among anticonvulsant drugs
despite it being observed in clinical practice
(Romano etal. 2005). In drug eruptions secondary to tetrazepam, PaT and oral provocation conrm the absence of cross-reactivity among other
benzodiazepines, in contrast to the crossreactivity of benzodiazepines seen in occupational allergic contact dermatitis (Barbaud etal.
2009; Vander Hulst etal. 2010).
4 Other Skin Tests
Lesional skin tests are indicated in xed drug
eruptions. PaTs with the possible culprit and
related chemicals are applied for 24h on inactive,
residual lesions and, as a control, a duplicate
patch is applied on normal back skin. Delaying
patch testing to 6weeks after acute are of FDE
is recommended to avoid false negatives. Due to
the rapid reactivation of drug-specic tissue resident memory T cells in residual FDE lesions
(Shiohara and Mizukawa 2012; Hoetzenecker
etal. 2016), test readings can be performed at D1,
or at D2/D3 if previously negative (Andrade etal.
2011). Positive reactions present with erythema
and inltration, occasionally with vesicles and/or
bullae. In most instances, the normal skin shows
no reaction (Andrade et al. 2011; Andrade and
Gonçalo 2011; Calvão etal. 2020). As an alternative, especially in areas where occlusion or application of a patch test chamber is difcult (lips/
genitalia), an open test with the culprit drug may
also induce positive reactions (Alanko 1994).
Oral provocation can be performed safely in
patients with a limited number of lesions.
NSAIDs are a group of drugs that are frequently
positive on lesional testing (Fig.5, Gonçalo etal.
2002). Similar to other settings, lesional PaT has
been used to evaluate cross-reactions, suggesting
safety of celecoxib in etoricoxib FDE (De Sousa
etal. 2016) and advising against tenoxicam and
hydroxyzine or levocetirizine in cases of piroxi-
71
Fig. 5 Positive reaction from the NSAID nimesulide
10% pet. Observed at day 1 at a residual lesion of xed
drug eruption, and a negative reaction to ibuprofen tested
on the left side of the same residual lesion
cam and cetirizine induced FDE respectively
(Gonçalo etal. 2002; Cravo etal. 2007).
Photopatch tests are recommended to study
systemic drug photosensitivity. As in photoallergic contact dermatitis, two equal sets of patches
are applied in the back and at D1 or D2 one is
irradiated with 5J/cm2 UVA, while the other is
shielded from light. A third set of patches to be
irradiated with UVB may be useful in a few
cases. Readings are performed immediately after
irradiation and 2–5 days thereafter, comparing
irradiated and nonirradiated sites (Gonçalo etal.
2013). Photopatch tests have been shown to be
frequently positive in photoallergy from piroxicam (Gonçalo et al. 1992) or ketoprofen
(EMCPPTS Taskforce etal. 2012), and also in
cases of photosensitivity from uoroquinolones,
hydrochlorothiazide, phenothiazines, pirfenidone, and vandetanib, among others (Gonçalo
2020). A positive photoprovocation test (induc-
tion of skin lesions by irradiation a small area of
the nonexposed skin with UV-light while the
patient is taking the drug) or a signicant reduction of the MED (minimal erythema dose) with
UVB or UVA while the patient is taking the drug
followed by MED normalizing after drug withdrawal, can also be used to conrm the drug as
the culprit for a photosensitive reaction (Gonçalo
and Giménez-Arnau 2015).
72
https://t.me/medicina_free
M. Gonçalo
5 Conclusions
The appropriate choice of investigations in the
study of drug eruptions is dependent on the pattern of the drug eruption, a knowledge of the
underlying pathomechanism as well as a as well
as a detailed history of drugs and their associated
latency. This data is of utmost importance to
make the initial judgment on the possible culprits
based on pharmacovigilance algorithms, like the
Naranjo’s adverse drug reaction probability scale
(National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and
Kidney Diseases 2016) or the French pharmacovigilance criteria (Miremont-Salamé etal. 2016).
As there are no standardized invitro diagnostic
tests, skin tests are extremely important to conrm the real culprit(s) in order to avoid unnecessary drug avoidance, the use of more costly and
less effective alternatives as well as to avoid the
recurrence of the drug reaction and inadvertent
challenge.
When correctly performed and interpreted,
positive skin tests can be of high value in the conrmation of the suspected culprit(s) drug(s). On
the other hand, a negative skin test cannot exclude
a highly suspicious drug, as sensitivity of skin
tests for both immediate and delayed eruptions is
far from 100%. In addition, skin tests can provide
useful information on cross-reactivity which is of
utmost importance for the clinician and the
patient.
A stepwise and cost-effective approach in
diagnostic skin testing is recommended. In
immediate reactions it is recommended to begin
with SPT followed by IDT and oral challenge in
a unit with resuscitation facilities. In nonimmediate drug reactions, evaluation should begin with
PaT followed by IDT and, eventually, oral challenge in nonsevere drug eruptions. In severe reactions, oral challenge is contraindicated and
caution needs to be exercised in the use of
IDT.Nonetheless, many aspects of drug skin testing will need further standardization. In addition,
well-designed multicenter studies are needed to
dene the real sensitivity and specicity of skin
tests with different drugs and phenotypes
(Romano etal. 2020).
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