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Diagnosis andManagement ofRuptured Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms
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ofChronic Thoracic, Abdominal,
andThoracoabdominal Aortic Aneurysms
MelindaS.Schaller, WinonaW.Wu, andMarcL.Schermerhorn
Introduction
Aortic disease can be attributed as the cause of death in nearly 10,000 individuals a
year in the United States [1]. Thoracic aortic aneurysms (TAA) are those of the
aortic root, ascending aortic, aortic arch and descending aorta above the diaphragm
(Fig.1). In some individuals, multiple segments may be involved. When both the
thoracic segment and the abdominal segment of the aorta are aneurysmal, this is
referred to as a thoracoabdominal aneurysm (TAAA) (Fig.2). Normal diameters of
the different thoracic aortic segments vary based on age and gender, but generally,
any localized dilation greater than 50% of predicted is considered aneurysmal [2].
Of TAA, 60% involve the root/ascending aorta, 10% involve the arch, 40% involve
the descending portion, and 10% are TAAA [3]. The overall incidence of thoracic
aneurysms is approximately 10 per 100,000 person years, though incidence rates
increase substantially with age [4]. The average age at diagnosis is 69years, but
women are often older than their male counterparts, with women on average being
diagnosed at the age of 76years and men at the age of 63years [4]. There are several
conditions that predispose individuals to the development of a TAA, including
genetic syndromes such as Marfan syndrome, Loeys-Dietz syndrome, EhlersDanlos syndrome, and Turner syndrome; inammatory diseases such as Takayasu
and Behcet disease; and anatomic variants such as a bicuspid aortic valve, rightsided aortic arch, or aberrant right subclavian artery [2].
Abdominal aortic aneurysms (AAA) involve the segment of the aortic below the
diaphragm. Abdominal aortic aneurysms are dened by an increase in the aortic
diameter by 50% compared with normal, adjacent aorta; in most individuals, this
would be a size greater than 3cm [5]. The majority of AAA, approximately 90%,
involve the infrarenal segment, but any abdominal segment can be involved
M. S. Schaller · W. W. Wu · M. L. Schermerhorn (*)
Division of Vascular Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
e-mail: mscherm@bidmc.harvard.edu
J. S. Coselli et al. (eds.), Aortic Dissection and Acute Aortic Syndromes,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66668-2_32
461© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
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M. S. Schaller et al.
ab c
Fig. 1 Thoracic aortic aneurysms. These include (a) the aortic root and ascending aorta, (b) the
aortic arch, and (c) the descending aorta
ab
Fig. 2 The Crawford classication of thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms (TAAA). (a) Type I
TAAA, extends from the left subclavian (LSA) to the suprarenal aorta; (b) Type II TAAA, extends
from the LSA to the aortic bifurcation; (c) Type III TAAA, extends from the distal descending
thoracic aorta to the aortic bifurcation; (d) Type IV TAAA, extends from the supraceliac aorta to
the aortic bifurcation
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ab c
Fig. 3 Abdominal aortic aneurysms. These include (a) infrarenal, (b) juxtarenal, and (c) suprarenal
(Fig.3)[6]. The prevalence of AAA is likely between 3% and 10% of those older
than 50years, but this will vary in populations depending on the prevalence of associated risk factors [7]. The most relevant modiable risk factor for AAA is smoking [8].
Risk of developing an AAA increases with age and is substantially greater in men [9].
Clinical Manifestations, Screening, andDiagnosis
The majority of patients with either chronic TAA or AAA are asymptomatic and
these aneurysms are diagnosed incidentally when imaging studies are obtained for
other reasons. TAA can occasionally be recognized on chest x-rays as a widened
mediastinum, increased girth of the aortic knob, or as a cause of tracheal deviation.
Aneurysms of the root can lead to aortic regurgitation, which can occasionally be
identied on physical exam. When TAA become large, they can sometimes lead to
local compressive symptoms, such as that of the trachea or bronchus, which can
lead to cough, shortness of breath, or wheezing. If the esophagus is compressed, this
can lead to dysphagia [3]. If a TAA is suspected, the diagnostic studies of choice are
either a CT or MR angiogram (CTA or MRA). Additionally, transthoracic or transesophageal echocardiography is useful for imaging and surveillance of the aortic
root and can diagnose the degree of regurgitation, if present.
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Aneurysms of the abdominal aorta are occasionally diagnosed on x-rays of the
spine or abdominal cavity. They may also be appreciated on physical exam, although
this is not a reliable way to exclude an aneurysm. An important aspect of the evaluation of a patient with an AAA is to palpate the aorta to elicit the presence of tenderness, necessitating expeditious repair. Like their thoracic counterparts, AAA are
best imaged with a CT or MR angiogram, as this will give the clinician the most
information about anatomic features that would impact the timing and technical
aspects regarding repair. Abdominal ultrasound is also an important imaging modality for AAA, as it can be used for both screening and following growth of the aneurysm over time. Abdominal ultrasound is a useful modality for surveillance as it is
reproducible, readily attainable, and non-invasive. Several studies have demonstrated that a single, ultrasound-based screening exam for AAA can effectively
reduce mortality related to aneurysms as well as rupture risk [10–13]. These studies
found that screening decreased aneurysm-related mortality by 40% and reduced
aneurysm rupture by 50% [12, 13].
M. S. Schaller et al.
Natural History
The natural history of TAA is to increase in size with an average growth rate of
about 0.1–0.42 cm/year [14, 15]. Smaller TAA (4 cm) typically grow around
0.08cm/year whereas large aneurysms grow at a faster rate [16]. The rate of growth
is also affected by the location of the TAA, with those of the ascending aorta growing more slowly than those of the descending thoracic aorta [16, 17]. Abdominal
aortic aneurysms between 3 and 4cm grow slowly with a<10% increase in size per
year [18, 19]. Those AAA 4 cm and larger tend to grow approximately 10% per
year, although there is substantial variability among individuals [18, 20].
As aneurysms increase in size, the overall risk of rupture also increases. For TAA
the yearly risk of rupture of aneurysms smaller than 5cm is less than 5% compared
to a yearly risk of approximately 16% for those greater than 6cm [16]. A similar
trend holds true for AAA.In the Aneurysm Detection and Management (ADAM)
trial which reported the rupture risk for those with AAA who declined or were unt
for repair, the annual risk of rupture for aneurysms between 4 and 5cm was 0.5–5%,
for those between 5.5 and 5.9cm was 9%, for those between 6 and 6.9cm was 10%,
and for those greater than 7cm was 33% [21, 22].
Medical Management Strategies
The most important risk factor modication that can be made during aneurysm surveillance is smoking cessation [23, 24]. While risk factor modication in cardiovascular disease is well-established and often includes lipid-lowering agents such as
statins and hemodynamic control with agents such as beta blockers and ACE
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inhibitors, data to support their use to decrease aneurysm expansion or rupture risk
are lacking [25–28]. Although, perioperative statin therapy has been found to
improve long-term survival in patients undergoing AAA repair, so their use is recommended in this patient population unless contraindications exist [29].
Investigations into the use of medications such as doxycycline, which can inhibit
matrix metalloproteinases, have demonstrated no benet to reduce aneurysm growth
[30, 31]. During an aneurysm surveillance period, patients should be encouraged to
stop smoking and their general health optimized when possible, including treatment
of hypertension, dyslipidemia, and participation in a regular exercise regimen
[32–34].
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Surveillance Strategies
For both thoracic and abdominal aortic aneurysms, the timing and modality of surveillance imaging will depend on the initial size of the aortic aneurysm, its location,
and its rate of expansion during the surveillance period. For ascending aortic aneurysms that are degenerative in nature, those smaller than 4cm can be followed
yearly with echocardiography, to reduce cumulative radiation exposure, or crosssectional imaging. Once the ascending aorta reaches 4.5cm, or the rate of growth is
greater than 0.5cm/year, one should obtain surveillance imaging every 6months
[2]. Operative repair should be considered once the ascending aorta reaches 5.5cm
in size [17, 35], though some have proposed using an aortic sizing index that takes
into consideration variation in aortic size by gender and body size [36]. In individuals with connective tissue disorders, such as Marfan syndrome, the diameter for
consideration of operative repair is smaller, at 4–5cm [2, 17]. Size criteria and timing for surveillance of aneurysms of the aortic arch are similar to those of the
ascending aorta, with operative repair being recommended in appropriate candidates at a size of 5.5cm [15]. For the descending thoracic aorta and for TAAA,
elective repair for asymptomatic degenerative aneurysms is recommended at a
diameter of 5.5–6cm, depending on patient health factors and anatomic and technical considerations; if an endovascular option exists, one may consider repair at a
diameter of 5.5cm versus waiting to 6cm for those who will require an open repair
due to the increased morbidity and mortality associated with open repairs [37].
Once an aneurysm is approaching a size where operative repair would be recommended, those who have been screened with ultrasound or MRA should have a CTA
performed. This is the ideal study for identifying anatomic features that can impact
repair strategies and is the best study for delineating the distribution of aortic
calcication.
Once an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta is identied, these individuals should
enter into a regular surveillance program. Regular surveillance has been found to be
safe until the aneurysm reaches a size of 5.5cm in men and between 5 and 5.4cm
in women [9, 38, 39]. Surveillance intervals of 3years have been recommended for
abdominal aneurysms measuring 3–3.9cm, 1year for aneurysms measuring 4–4.9,
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M. S. Schaller et al.
with intervals of 6months being recommended for those larger than 5cm [9, 40].
The majority of the recommendations for surveillance and repair of aortic aneurysms have been based on datasets in which women are underrepresented. Other
strategies for aneurysms in women have been developed which may be more accurate for determining overall risk, and associated timelines for repair, including the
aortic size index (aneurysm diameter (cm)/body surface area (m2)) [41]. There are
certain circumstances when one may recommend operative repair prior to the aneurysm size threshold criteria being met, including rapid aneurysm expansion, combined iliac aneurysms, and aneurysm-related embolic events.
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Institutes of Health (NIA-NIH). Dr Matsumura reported receiving grants from the NIH,
Abbott, Cook, Medtronic, Gore, and Endologix. Dr Curci reported receiving grants from
the NIH.Dr McBride reported receiving grants from the University of Maryland. Dr Larson
reported receiving grants from the National Institute of Allergy and Infection Diseases. Dr
Blackwelder reported receiving grants from the NIH.Dr Lam reported that she is employed
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by Genentech, although the majority of the work was completed before employment began,
and that she owns stock in Genentech and Merck. Dr Terrin reported receiving grants from
NIH.No other disclosures were reported.
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