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R. P. Shupak et al.
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Chapter 20
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Gender-Afrming Facial Surgery:
Ofce- Based Procedures
AbigailFrazier, PoolakBhatt, andEldaFisher
Transgender care has become a critical point of discussion within healthcare
spheres. With the number of patients seeking gender-afrming care on the rise, it is
crucial to provide insight into transgender populations, along with a thorough
understanding of medical and surgical techniques to meet the needs of transgender
patients. This chapter aims to briey investigate the denition of gender dysphoria,
the basic World Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH) criteria
for gender-afrming care and the application of gender-afrming surgery as it
applies to ofce-based procedures for facial gender afrmation.
Transgender Populations
Terminology
Over the last few decades, transgender terminology has rapidly evolved to reect
the growing needs of the community. It is critical for surgeons to understand fundamental differences in terminology to successfully treat this population. Perhaps
most crucial to the discussion of gender-afrming surgery is distinguishing between
gender nonconformity and gender dysphoria. It is well established that biological
A. Frazier · P. Bhatt · E. Fisher (*)
Division of Craniofacial and Surgical Care, ASoD, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
Residency Program in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of North Carolina
Hospitals, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
e-mail: Abigail.Frazier@unchealth.unc.edu; Poolak.Bhatt@unchealth.unc.edu;
elda.sher@unc.edu
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2023
J. C. Melville et al. (eds.), Advancements and Innovations in OMFS, ENT, and
Facial Plastic Surgery, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-32099-6_20
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sex and gender are exclusive entities, with sex referring to specic chromosomes
and genitalia that identify people as either “male” or “female” at birth and gender
referring to the internal feelings of masculinity or femininity experienced by each
person. From these denitions, each culture has adopted both spoken and unspoken
protocols dictating how a person’s gender should align with their birth sex [1].
While the majority of the population has a gender identity that conforms with their
biological sex, a subset of people do not share this experience. Interestingly, there is
a growing body of evidence suggesting one’s brain has anatomic ndings that reect
their preferred biological sex rather than their assigned biological sex [2]. As a person’s gender identity, role, or expression begins to contrast with gender norms for a
given sex, they are considered transgender/gender nonconforming. While gender
nonconformity is a blanket statement for the extent one’s gender expression deviates from cultural norms, gender dysphoria is the marked stress and discomfort
resulting from the inconsistency between birth sex and gender identity [3]. It is
within the gender dysphoria population that gender-afrming surgeons nd themselves tasked to address surgical needs to alleviate distress on the road to acceptance
for their desired gender expression and identity.
Validation and support for the transgender community begin long before the surgery date. In addition to understanding transgender terminology, the proper use of
pronouns is vital to generating trust and respect with patients. Misgendering patients
continues to serve as a barrier to healthcare access for the transgender community
[3–5]. To counteract this issue, it is recommended that gender-afrming surgeons
make inclusive questions and language part of their daily routine, including asking
each patient their preferred pronouns. Proactive measures are the foundation for
building relationships and achieving long-term treatment goals.
A. Frazier et al.
Epidemiology
The question that arises during gender-afrming surgery discussions is that of need.
What is the prevalence of people who identify as transgender, and how many have
gender dysphoria that requires medical and surgical intervention? In the United
States, most recent studies have identied anywhere between 0.4% and 3% of the
population identify themselves as transgender [6, 7]. This equates to, at the very
least, over one million people in the United States who are transgender. International
studies over the years have discovered the prevalence of those living with gender
dysphoria to range from 1:11,900 to 1:45,000 for male-to-female individuals (MtF)
and 1:30,400 to 1:200,000 for female-to-male (FtM) individuals [3]. Though studies
range in their methodology, there is a common theme among scholars: the population of transgender and those living with gender dysphoria is grossly underestimated. Reasons for this discrepancy include but are not limited to access to
healthcare, discrimination and fear surrounding gender nonconforming individuals,
and lack of education to both healthcare providers and the public [3, 6, 7]. Since it
20 Gender-Afrming Facial Surgery: Ofce-Based Procedures
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is assumed the true population of transgender individuals is underrepresented, the
question becomes not whether the need exists, but how can surgeons advocate for
transgender patients through medical and surgical intervention.
Inaccurate representation of the transgender population is in part due to discrimination in healthcare environments. Roughly one-third of transgender patients have
reported some form of harassment or outright denial of service in a medical setting,
causing many transgender people to postpone medical care altogether [2]. There
are, therefore, health disparities unique to the transgender population such as higher
than average rates of HIV, drug, and alcohol dependence found in transgender populations. Notably, with the absence of regular care to monitor hormone therapy, one
in four transgender people have turned to self-prescribing illegally obtained crosssex hormones to manage their dysphoria [2]. Further, without adequate attention to
the subject, transgender patients who should be screened for cancer/disease associated with sex are overlooked. Not only is this dangerous if pathological processes
go undiagnosed, but without transgender-competent providers, transgender patients
who are screened for organ-associated disease processes can experience further
physical and emotional distress when the screening does not afrm their gender [3].
Finally, suicide and suicidal ideation are alarmingly high in this population and
should be addressed in the context of psychosocial considerations as a whole.
In the United States, the annual rate for suicidal ideation is 4%. This is a staggering contrast to the transgender community, where reports of suicidal ideation reach
as high as 50% of the population [8]. The reason behind such a stark contrast is
multifactorial but is centered around the psychosocial pain and stress faced by the
transgender community due to discrimination within society. Transgender people
are twice likely to be refused a job compared to cis-LGB (lesbian, gay, and bisexual
individuals who identify with their assigned birth gender) employees, have 2.2×
greater risk of homelessness than non-LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender)
individuals, experience 71.1 violent victimizations per 1000 people compared to
19.2 per 1000 non-LGBT people, and are overall more likely to experience prejudice and bullying from peers and family [3, 9, 10, 11]. The levels of anxiety, depres-
sion, eating disorders, self-harm, and suicidal ideation are inuenced heavily by the
experiences transgender people have in their daily lives. It is important to be cognizant of health disparities and psychosocial considerations in the transgender community to educate, refer to specialists, and support them in continuity of care.
351
Gender-Afrming Care
With a broad understanding of transgender terminology and epidemiology, the discussion can appropriately shift to medical interventions and their associated criteria
for transgender patients. The current authority on transgender treatment guidelines
is The Standards of Care Version 7, researched and constructed by the World
Professional Association for Transgender Health (WPATH). In short, this document
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A. Frazier et al.
functions “to provide clinical guidance for health professionals to assist transsexual,
transgender, and gender-nonconforming people with safe and effective pathways to
achieving lasting personal comfort with their gendered selves, in order to maximize
their overall health, psychological well-being, and self-fulllment.” [3] An important aspect of these guidelines are criteria for hormonal and surgical intervention.
For both hormonal and surgical intervention, it is required to have (1) persistent,
well-documented gender dysphoria (12months for surgical intervention), (2) the
capacity to make fully informed decision and to consent for treatment, (3) age of
majority in a given country, and (4) reasonably well-controlled medical or mental
health concerns if present. Additional requirements for surgery include (1) referrals
from a qualied mental health professional, (2) hormone therapy, and (3) 12 continuous months of living in a gender role that is congruent with their gender identity.
The 12-month criteria serve as an evidence-based timeline to give patients ample
time to socially adjust to the desired gender role before undergoing irreversible
interventions [3].
Given the above criteria, most gender dysphoria patients who present for
gender- afrming facial surgery consultations have had hormone and other surgical therapy. For hormone therapy, dosage and regimen vary greatly depending on
the person and predisposing risks for complications. For feminizing medications,
a combination of estrogen and anti-androgens are most commonly used. Given the
risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) associated with high-dose exogenous
estrogen, transdermal estrogen is recommended, and anti-androgen medications
minimize the amount of estrogen needed to suppress testosterone [3]. Common
anti-androgenic hormones include spironolactone (Aldactone), cyproterone
(Androcur), GnRH agonists (Eligard, Lupron Depot), and 5-alpha reductase
inhibitors (Avodart, Propecia). For masculinizing hormones, testosterone is sufcient, although progestins can be used in the early stages for a short time to aid
in menstrual cessation [3]. The degree/rate of physical effects and development of
risks depends on the medication(s) of choice, dose, and route of administration.
Risks as dened by the standard of care are categorized by “likely increased risk,”
“possible increased risk,” and “no increased risk or inconclusive.” Feminizing
hormones are associated with a likely increased risk of complications like VTE
and hypertriglyceridemia, but there is currently no increased risk of breast cancer.
Masculinizing hormones are associated with a likely increased risk of complications like polycythemia, male pattern balding, and sleep apnea, but there is currently no evidence to support risk of breast, cervical, ovarian, or uterine cancer
[3]. These risks and other potential risks are summarized in Table20.1. In general
and although highly variable, physical changes are expected to occur over the
course of 2years [3] (Table20.1).
20 Gender-Afrming Facial Surgery: Ofce-Based Procedures
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Table 20.1 Risk of various diseases associated with feminizing and masculinizing hormones
Feminizing hormones Masculinizing hormones
• Breast cancer • Breast cancer
• Cervical cancer
• Decreased bone density
• Ovarian cancer
• Uterine cancer
• Hyperprolactinemia
• Hypertension
• Prolactinoma
• Type 2 diabetes
• Cholelithiasis
• Elevated liver enzymes
• Hyperlipidemia
• Venous thromboembolism
• Weight gain
• Cardiovascular disease
• Elevated liver enzymes
• Exacerbation of psychiatric disorder
• Hyperlipidemia
• Hypertension
• Type 2 diabetes
• Acne
• Andogenic alopecia
• Polycythemia
• Weight gain
• Obstructive sleep apnea
No known increased
risk of these outcomes
Possible increased risk
Increased risk
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The Facial Skeletal andSoft Tissue Differences
The foundation for facial feminization surgical planning must be a sound knowledge of anatomy and its variations between men and women. Over the years, anthropometric and cephalometric studies have determined facial sex differences are most
noticeable in the forehead/supraorbital ridges, orbital borders, malar eminences,
nose, mandible, and neck form [12, 13]. It is important to note there are other variables that affect facial shape and proportions besides gender, such as race and age;
however, for the purpose of this discussion, craniofacial and soft tissue standards
are compared only between males and females.
The craniofacial skeleton has distinct bony that are the target of facial feminization procedures. Overall, the male face is wider and longer in regard to both the
skeletal and soft tissue due to the length of exposure to and amount of testosterone
during development. There are standard measurements that delineate the general
differences in facial width and height between men and women: Fig.20.1.
Not only is the male face larger overall, but variations exist within each facial
third. With the upper facial third, the forehead and orbital rims differ between males
and females. In females, their forehead slope tends to be more vertical, they have
more obtuse nasofrontal angle, and less projection of lateral orbital rims. The angulation in the forehead slope is measured relative to the vertical plane through the
glabella [13].
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A. Frazier et al.
The supraorbital and lateral orbital rims normally project 5–10mm beyond the
anterior corneal plane and are far more pronounced in men than women [13]. In
addition, the nasion in males is deeper than in females [6]. As a result, the nasofrontal angle in men is more acute than in females [13] (Fig.20.2).
Fig. 20.1 Masculine and feminine craniofacial skeletal measurement norms. (a) Bizygomatic
width, the widest portion of the face [13]: male: 140mm+/−4mm; female: 130mm+/−5mm (b)
Bigonial width, generally 70–75% of the bizygomatic width [13]: skeletal: male: 96+/−7mm;
female: 90+/−7mm
Fig. 20.2 Preoperative (left) and postoperative (right) lateral view demonstrating increase in nasofrontal angle postoperatively in facial feminization surgery
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