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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_2693_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
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- •Preface
- •Contents
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Cohort Study
- •Contributors
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Risk Scoring
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Clinical Trial
- •Cohort Study
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Pediatric Considerations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Clinical Trial
- •Cohort Study
- •Comparative Study
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Risk Scoring
- •Special Populations
- •Comorbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Cohort Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Clinical Trial
- •Cohort Study
- •Case Study
- •Editorial/Comment
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Electrocardiography
- •Cardiac Enzymes
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Cohort Study
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors that Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors that Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-Morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Meta-Analysis
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Other Studies
- •Special Populations
- •Pediatrics
- •Elderly
- •Pregnancy
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Cohort Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory Studies
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Pediatric Considerations
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Cohort Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Cohort Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Pulmonary Function Tests
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Clinical Trial
- •Comparative Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Cohort Study
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Pregnancy
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Imaging
- •Electrocardiography
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Clinical Trial
- •General
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Imaging
- •Electrocardiography
- •Cardiac Enzymes
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •General
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Children
- •The Elderly
- •During Pregnancy
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Meta-Analysis
- •Review
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary studies
- •Electrocardiography
- •Laboratory
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence:
- •Cohort Study
- •Comparative Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Other Studies
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Review
- •Case Study
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Imaging
- •Other
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Meta-Analysis
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors that Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors that Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Other Studies
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Practice Guideline
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations
- •Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
- •Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
- •Ancillary Studies
- •Laboratory
- •Electrocardiography
- •Imaging
- •Other Studies
- •Special Populations
- •Co-morbidities
- •Mimics
- •Time-Dependent Interventions
- •Disease Course
- •Related Evidence
- •Review
- •Incidence/Epidemiology
- •Differential Diagnosis
- •Presentation
- •Typical/“Classic”
- •Atypical
- •Primary Differential Considerations

29 Foreign Body Aspiration
435
Chest radiograph showing foreign body in left main bronchus with obstructive
emphysema of left lung. [Jaswal A, Jana U, Maiti PK.Tracheo-bronchial foreign
bodies: a retrospective study and review of literature. Indian J Otolaryngol Head
Neck Surg. 2014 Jan;66(S1):156–60.] Caption from original
• Esophageal foreign bodies:
• Plain chest radiography is not useful for food bolus impactions.
• Barium swallow may be challenging for the patient but will be diagnostic.
• More proximal foreign bodies may be visualized on plain radiography.
Esophageal foreign bodies (FBs). Ingested FBs may become impacted at any level
but are typically held up at the three sites of natural narrowing: the cricopharyngeus
muscle, the level of the aortic arc, and the gastroesophageal junction. The most
common esophageal FBs are coins. They usually lodge at the cricopharyngeus,
resulting in marked dysphagia even for liquids. Anteroposterior (from base of skull

436
to pelvic outlet) and lateral radiographs are recommended if a coin ingestion is suspected because the presence of multiple coins may not be appreciated on a single
anteroposterior view. Sharp FBs are particularly treacherous because they may perforate the esophagus, resulting in mediastinitis or major vessel injury and lifethreatening hemorrhage. This radiograph shows a metallic foreign body lodged in
the midesophagus of a 4-year-old boy who had stopped eating solid foods 2 months
previously, precisely at the time his older brother’s toy tractor steering wheel disappeared. Removal at esophagoscopy was complicated because the foreign body was
deeply embedded in the esophageal wall. [Papsin BC, James A, Friedberg J, Forte
V, Crysdale WS.Otolaryngology—head and neck surgery. In: Laxer RM, editor.
The Hospital for Sick Children: atlas of pediatrics. Philadelphia: Current Medicine;
2005. p.231-250.] Caption from original
C. V. Pollack, Jr. et al.
Other Studies
• Endoscopy often is indicated.
Special Populations
Age
• Aspiration of foreign bodies may occur at any age but is most common in
toddlers.

29 Foreign Body Aspiration
Risk factors for foreign body aspiration in elderly patients. [Folch E, Majid
A. Foreign body aspiration in the elderly patient. Curr Geriatr Rep. 2015
Jun;4(2):192–201.] Caption from original
• Esophageal food bolus impaction is more common in older patients.
• Commonly aspirated FBs in children include nuts, seeds, popcorn, food particles, hardware, and fragments of playthings.
• Coins are aspirated more commonly by older children.
• Fatal aspirations usually involve toy balloons or similar items.
• In one study, common anatomic sites in childhood aspiration included the
larynx (3 %), trachea/carina (13 %), right hemithorax (60 %), left hemithorax
(23 %), and bilateral bronchial tree (2 %).
• In the pediatric patient, the diagnosis often is delayed. Children may present
with wheezing, dyspnea, recurrent pneumonia, or chronic cough. Aggressive
investigations beyond plain radiography, especially bronchoscopy, are warranted in patients with recurrent or otherwise unexplained symptoms.
437
Co-morbidities
• Achalasia
Pitfalls inDiagnosis
Critical Steps Not toMiss
• Evaluation for satisfactory airway
• Evaluation for satisfactory oxygenation
Mimics
• Asthma
Time-Dependent Interventions
• Immediate evaluation for adequate airway and gas exchange

438
C. V. Pollack, Jr. et al.
Overall Principles ofTreatment
• Identify and remove foreign body.
• In cases of esophageal food bolus impaction, consider using glucagon before
endoscopy; the use of meat tenderizer, advocated in the past, no longer is
recommended.
Disease Course
• The course is determined by the acuity of presentation and underlying etiology, as well as the rapidity with which the foreign body is removed.
• The vast majority of foreign body cases are not life threatening.
Related Evidence
Papers of particular interest have been highlighted as:
** Of key importance
Review
Sehgal IS, Dhooria S, Ram B, Singh N, Aggarwal AN, Gupta D, Behera D, Agarwal
R.Foreign body inhalation in the adult population: experience of 25,998 bronchoscopies and systematic review of the literature. Respir Care. 2015 May 12.
pii: respcare.03976. PMID: 25969517. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/25969517 **
Hegde SV, Hui PK, Lee EY.Tracheobronchial foreign bodies in children: imaging
assessment. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2015 Feb;36(1):8-20. https://doi.
org/10.1053/j.sult.2014.10.001. Epub 2014 Oct 18. PMID: 25639173. http://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25639173
Pinto A, Lanza C, Pinto F, Grassi R, Romano L, Brunese L, Giovagnoni A.Role of
plain radiography in the assessment of ingested foreign bodies in the pediatric
patients. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2015 Feb;36(1):21-7. https://doi.
org/10.1053/j.sult.2014.10.008. PMID: 25639174. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov/pubmed/25639174
Prather AD, Smith TR, Poletto DM, Tavora F, Chung JH, Nallamshetty L, Hazelton
TR, Rojas CA. Aspiration-related lung diseases. J Thorac Imaging. 2014
Sep;29(5):304-9.
24911122.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24911122 **
https://doi.org/10.1097/RTI.0000000000000092. PMID:
**

29 Foreign Body Aspiration
439
Rodríguez H, Passali GC, Gregori D, Chinski A, Tiscornia C, Botto H, Nieto M,
Zanetta A, Passali D, Cuestas G.Management of foreign bodies in the airway
and oesophagus. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2012 May 14;76 Suppl 1:S84-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2012.02.010. PMID: 22365376. http://www.
91.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22365376 **
Gang W, Zhengxia P, Hongbo L, Yonggang L, Jiangtao D, Shengde W, Chun
W.Diagnosis and treatment of tracheobronchial foreign bodies in 1024 children.
J Pediatr Surg. 2012 Nov;47(11):2004-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped-
surg.2012.07.036. PMID: 23163990. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/23163990 **
Ambe P, Weber SA, Schauer M, Knoefel WT.Swallowed foreign bodies in adults.
Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2012 Dec;109(50):869-75. https://doi.org/10.3238/arz-
tebl.2012.0869
. PMID: 23293675. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/23293675 **
Cutrone C, Pedruzzi B, Tava G, Emanuelli E, Barion U, Fischetto D, Sari M, Narne
S, Zadra N, Martini A.The complimentary role of diagnostic and therapeutic
endoscopy in foreign body aspiration in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol.
2011 Dec;75(12):1481-5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2011.08.014. PMID:
21924505. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21924505 **
Paintal HS, Kuschner WG.Aspiration syndromes: 10 clinical pearls every physi-
cian should know. Int J Clin Pract. 2007 May;61(5):846-52. PMID: 17493092.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17493092 **
Swanson KL, Edell ES.Tracheobronchial foreign bodies. Chest Surg Clin N Am.
2001 Nov;11(4):861-72. PMID: 11780300. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/11780300 **
Case Study
Bain A, Barthos A, Hoffstein V, Batt J.Foreign-body aspiration in the adult: presen-
tation and management. Can Respir J. 2013 Nov-Dec;20(6):e98-9. PMID:
24137576. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24137576 **
Use PubMed Clinical Queries to nd the most recent evidence. Use this search
strategy:
“Foreign Bodies”[Mesh] OR “Foreign bodies”

Chapter 30
Gastroesophageal Reux Disease
ChristopherJ.Rees, RichardM.Cantor, CharlesV.Pollack,Jr.,
andVictoriaG.Riese
Name andSynonyms
Gastroesophageal Reux Disease
• GERD, Reux, Indigestion, Heartburn, Pyrosis
Incidence/Epidemiology
• Six to 7 % of the US population reports daily, persistent heartburn.
• Twenty to 40 % report monthly heartburn.
• GERD is responsible for a signicant amount of morbidity and has substantial
economic consequences.
C. J. Rees
Emergency Department, Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA
R. M. Cantor
Department of Emergency Medicine and Pediatrics, State University of NewYork Upstate
Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
C. V. Pollack,
Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University,
Philadelphia, PA, USA
V. G. Riese
Librarian Consultant, Eldersburg, MD, USA
C. V. Pollack, Jr. (ed.), Differential Diagnosis of Cardiopulmonary Disease,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63895-9_30
Jr. ()
441© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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Differential Diagnosis
• GERD may present with the acute onset of chest pain similar to acute cardiac
pain, so acute myocardial infarction (MI) and the other causes of acute chest
pain have to be considered in the differential diagnosis.
• The presentation of GERD also may be similar to that of esophagitis, peptic
ulcer disease (PUD), biliary disease, pancreatitis, hepatitis, and gastrointestinal motility disorders.
Pathophysiology andEtiology
• Reux of gastric contents into the esophagus occurs several times a day in
most people as a normal physiologic event. It becomes abnormal, and considered GERD, when it is associated with symptoms or pathologic changes
within the gastrointestinal or respiratory tracts. The Montreal Classication
denes GERD as “A condition that develops when the reux of stomach contents causes troublesome symptoms and/or complications.”
• The lower esophageal sphincter (LES) is the main physiologic barrier to
reux.
• When reux does occur, both mechanical (gravity) and physiologic (peristalsis, saliva, esophageal secretions) forces can help push gastric contents back
into the stomach.
• GERD may be caused or worsened by anything that reduces LES pressure,
decreases esophageal motility or gastric emptying time, or directly irritates
the esophageal mucosa, as well as by mechanical means.
• Factors that may reduce LES pressure include drugs (anticholinergic agents,
benzodiazepines, calcium-channel blockers, progesterone), foods (chocolate,
caffeine, high-fat foods, peppermint, nitrates), nicotine, and alcohol.
• Conditions that decrease esophageal motility include achalasia, diabetes, and
scleroderma.
• Factors and conditions that may decrease gastric emptying time include anticholinergic medications, diabetic gastroparesis, and gastric outlet
obstruction.
• Substances that may act as direct irritants to the gastric mucosa include caffeine, citrus products, and tomato-based products.
• Mechanical factors include stooping, bending forward, the Valsalva maneuver, and the supine position.
• GERD is much more common in obese patients.
• Hiatal hernia (prolapse of a portion of the stomach through the diaphragmatic
esophageal hiatus) also is considered a risk factor for GERD.

30 Gastroesophageal Reux Disease
Presentation
Typical/“Classic”
• The most common complaint is heartburn, a burning sensation from the subxyphoid region radiating into the neck or pharynx.
• Typically, symptoms worsen after large meals or with recumbency.
• Symptoms usually are relieved with antacids; however, this effect is not
pathognomonic and does not reliably exclude cardiac causes of pain.
• Other common presenting complaints include regurgitation and nausea, but
usually these are associated with heartburn.
• An uncommon but somewhat specic symptom of GERD is water brash, a
vagally mediated increase in saliva production often perceived by patients as
“foaming at the mouth.”
• GERD also may cause extraesophageal symptoms, including asthma (or
worsening asthma) from reux associated with aspiration, chronic cough,
hoarse voice, recurrent laryngitis or sore throat, frequent throat clearing, and
dental problems.
Atypical
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• It is important to remember that GERD symptoms can mimic those of acute
MI.Patients may describe the acute onset of chest pressure, dull chest pain, or
squeezing. The radiation pattern can mimic that of acute MI and radiate to the
back, jaw, or arm.
• Dysphagia (difculty swallowing) and odynophagia (painful swallowing) are
uncommon symptoms for GERD and should prompt further evaluation for other
causes.
• Globus is a perception of fullness or a lump in the throat, unrelated to swallowing. It is not a usual symptom of GERD, and its presence should prompt a
search for other causes. It often is thought to be related to emotional stress or
to have a functional basis.
Primary Differential Considerations
• Prompt consideration also should be given to the possible diagnosis of:
• Acute coronary syndrome
• Esophageal spasm
• Biliary colic
• Gastritis
• Hiatal hernia

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History andPhysical Exam
Findings That Conrm Diagnosis
• Because the diagnosis of GERD can be applied only for symptoms, there are
no tests that are conrmatory. A classic history of heartburn, worse after large
meals, and recumbency relieved by antacids is enough to make a presumptive
diagnosis of GERD.
• The physical exam is often unremarkable and not helpful in making the
diagnosis.
Factors That Suggest Diagnosis
• A classic presentation as above suggests the diagnosis.
• The diagnosis of GERD should be kept within the differential when evaluating a patient for new-onset or worsening asthma not explained by other factors, as a cause of chronic cough or laryngitis, and for patients with unexplained
hoarseness.
Factors That Exclude Diagnosis
• GERD may exist even in the absence of symptoms; there is no factor that
excludes the diagnosis.
• Normal endoscopy does not exclude the diagnosis of GERD.
Ancillary Studies
Laboratory
• Lab tests are unhelpful in the diagnosis of GERD and often are used only to
evaluate for other causes of the patient’s symptoms.
Imaging
• Imaging usually is not helpful or indicated for the diagnosis of GERD.
• Patients may need imaging or endoscopy to exclude other diagnoses.

30 Gastroesophageal Reux Disease
• Patients with symptoms such as dysphagia, odynophagia, weight loss, or
other constitutional symptoms may need endoscopy to exclude malignancy
and other serious causes of their symptoms.
Special Populations
Age
• GERD occurs in all age groups, including infants and children.
• In children, the term gastroesophogeal reux disease applies when the reux
results in untoward complications, such as esophagitis, respiratory events, or
growth failure.
• There is some evidence that severe reux in infancy predisposes children
to GERD later in life.
• GERD and asthma often overlap in children and adolescents, but current data
do not suggest that control of one has a signicant clinical impact on the other.
Co-morbidities
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• GERD may coexist with any other condition.
• Conditions that may make GERD more likely include obesity, diabetes, achalasia, motility disorders, and hiatal hernia.
Pitfalls inDiagnosis
Critical Steps Not toMiss
• It is critical to consider the more immediately life-threatening causes of chest
and abdominal pain.
Mimics
• GERD is a classic mimic of acute MI.
• GERD also can mimic PUD, all the causes of esophagitis, biliary disease,
pancreatitis, and esophageal and gastric motility disorders.
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