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29 Foreign Body Aspiration
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Chest radiograph showing foreign body in left main bronchus with obstructive emphysema of left lung. [Jaswal A, Jana U, Maiti PK.Tracheo-bronchial foreign bodies: a retrospective study and review of literature. Indian J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2014 Jan;66(S1):156–60.] Caption from original
• Esophageal foreign bodies:
• Plain chest radiography is not useful for food bolus impactions.
• Barium swallow may be challenging for the patient but will be diagnostic.
• More proximal foreign bodies may be visualized on plain radiography.
Esophageal foreign bodies (FBs). Ingested FBs may become impacted at any level but are typically held up at the three sites of natural narrowing: the cricopharyngeus muscle, the level of the aortic arc, and the gastroesophageal junction. The most common esophageal FBs are coins. They usually lodge at the cricopharyngeus, resulting in marked dysphagia even for liquids. Anteroposterior (from base of skull
436
to pelvic outlet) and lateral radiographs are recommended if a coin ingestion is sus­pected because the presence of multiple coins may not be appreciated on a single anteroposterior view. Sharp FBs are particularly treacherous because they may per­forate the esophagus, resulting in mediastinitis or major vessel injury and life­threatening hemorrhage. This radiograph shows a metallic foreign body lodged in the midesophagus of a 4-year-old boy who had stopped eating solid foods 2 months previously, precisely at the time his older brother’s toy tractor steering wheel disap­peared. Removal at esophagoscopy was complicated because the foreign body was deeply embedded in the esophageal wall. [Papsin BC, James A, Friedberg J, Forte V, Crysdale WS.Otolaryngology—head and neck surgery. In: Laxer RM, editor. The Hospital for Sick Children: atlas of pediatrics. Philadelphia: Current Medicine;
2005. p.231-250.] Caption from original
C. V. Pollack, Jr. et al.

Other Studies

• Endoscopy often is indicated.

Special Populations

Age
• Aspiration of foreign bodies may occur at any age but is most common in toddlers.
29 Foreign Body Aspiration
Risk factors for foreign body aspiration in elderly patients. [Folch E, Majid A. Foreign body aspiration in the elderly patient. Curr Geriatr Rep. 2015 Jun;4(2):192–201.] Caption from original
• Esophageal food bolus impaction is more common in older patients.
• Commonly aspirated FBs in children include nuts, seeds, popcorn, food par­ticles, hardware, and fragments of playthings.
• Coins are aspirated more commonly by older children.
• Fatal aspirations usually involve toy balloons or similar items.
• In one study, common anatomic sites in childhood aspiration included the larynx (3 %), trachea/carina (13 %), right hemithorax (60 %), left hemithorax (23 %), and bilateral bronchial tree (2 %).
• In the pediatric patient, the diagnosis often is delayed. Children may present with wheezing, dyspnea, recurrent pneumonia, or chronic cough. Aggressive investigations beyond plain radiography, especially bronchoscopy, are war­ranted in patients with recurrent or otherwise unexplained symptoms.
437

Co-morbidities

• Achalasia
Pitfalls inDiagnosis
Critical Steps Not toMiss
• Evaluation for satisfactory airway
• Evaluation for satisfactory oxygenation

Mimics

• Asthma

Time-Dependent Interventions

• Immediate evaluation for adequate airway and gas exchange
438
C. V. Pollack, Jr. et al.
Overall Principles ofTreatment
• Identify and remove foreign body.
• In cases of esophageal food bolus impaction, consider using glucagon before endoscopy; the use of meat tenderizer, advocated in the past, no longer is recommended.

Disease Course

• The course is determined by the acuity of presentation and underlying etiol­ogy, as well as the rapidity with which the foreign body is removed.
• The vast majority of foreign body cases are not life threatening.

Related Evidence

Papers of particular interest have been highlighted as: ** Of key importance

Review

Sehgal IS, Dhooria S, Ram B, Singh N, Aggarwal AN, Gupta D, Behera D, Agarwal
R.Foreign body inhalation in the adult population: experience of 25,998 bron­choscopies and systematic review of the literature. Respir Care. 2015 May 12. pii: respcare.03976. PMID: 25969517. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/25969517 **
Hegde SV, Hui PK, Lee EY.Tracheobronchial foreign bodies in children: imaging
assessment. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2015 Feb;36(1):8-20. https://doi.
org/10.1053/j.sult.2014.10.001. Epub 2014 Oct 18. PMID: 25639173. http:// www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25639173
Pinto A, Lanza C, Pinto F, Grassi R, Romano L, Brunese L, Giovagnoni A.Role of
plain radiography in the assessment of ingested foreign bodies in the pediatric patients. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2015 Feb;36(1):21-7. https://doi.
org/10.1053/j.sult.2014.10.008. PMID: 25639174. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih. gov/pubmed/25639174
Prather AD, Smith TR, Poletto DM, Tavora F, Chung JH, Nallamshetty L, Hazelton
TR, Rojas CA. Aspiration-related lung diseases. J Thorac Imaging. 2014 Sep;29(5):304-9.
24911122.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24911122 **
https://doi.org/10.1097/RTI.0000000000000092. PMID:
**
29 Foreign Body Aspiration
439
Rodríguez H, Passali GC, Gregori D, Chinski A, Tiscornia C, Botto H, Nieto M,
Zanetta A, Passali D, Cuestas G.Management of foreign bodies in the airway and oesophagus. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2012 May 14;76 Suppl 1:S84-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2012.02.010. PMID: 22365376. http://www.
91.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22365376 **
Gang W, Zhengxia P, Hongbo L, Yonggang L, Jiangtao D, Shengde W, Chun
W.Diagnosis and treatment of tracheobronchial foreign bodies in 1024 children. J Pediatr Surg. 2012 Nov;47(11):2004-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped-
surg.2012.07.036. PMID: 23163990. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ pubmed/23163990 **
Ambe P, Weber SA, Schauer M, Knoefel WT.Swallowed foreign bodies in adults.
Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2012 Dec;109(50):869-75. https://doi.org/10.3238/arz-
tebl.2012.0869
. PMID: 23293675. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/23293675 **
Cutrone C, Pedruzzi B, Tava G, Emanuelli E, Barion U, Fischetto D, Sari M, Narne
S, Zadra N, Martini A.The complimentary role of diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopy in foreign body aspiration in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2011 Dec;75(12):1481-5.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2011.08.014. PMID:
21924505. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21924505 **
Paintal HS, Kuschner WG.Aspiration syndromes: 10 clinical pearls every physi-
cian should know. Int J Clin Pract. 2007 May;61(5):846-52. PMID: 17493092.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17493092 **
Swanson KL, Edell ES.Tracheobronchial foreign bodies. Chest Surg Clin N Am.
2001 Nov;11(4):861-72. PMID: 11780300. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pubmed/11780300 **

Case Study

Bain A, Barthos A, Hoffstein V, Batt J.Foreign-body aspiration in the adult: presen-
tation and management. Can Respir J. 2013 Nov-Dec;20(6):e98-9. PMID:
24137576. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24137576 **
Use PubMed Clinical Queries to nd the most recent evidence. Use this search
strategy:
“Foreign Bodies”[Mesh] OR “Foreign bodies”
Chapter 30
Gastroesophageal Reux Disease
ChristopherJ.Rees, RichardM.Cantor, CharlesV.Pollack,Jr., andVictoriaG.Riese
Name andSynonyms
Gastroesophageal Reux Disease
• GERD, Reux, Indigestion, Heartburn, Pyrosis

Incidence/Epidemiology

• Six to 7 % of the US population reports daily, persistent heartburn.
• Twenty to 40 % report monthly heartburn.
• GERD is responsible for a signicant amount of morbidity and has substantial economic consequences.
C. J. Rees Emergency Department, Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA
R. M. Cantor Department of Emergency Medicine and Pediatrics, State University of NewYork Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
C. V. Pollack, Department of Emergency Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
V. G. Riese Librarian Consultant, Eldersburg, MD, USA
C. V. Pollack, Jr. (ed.), Differential Diagnosis of Cardiopulmonary Disease,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63895-9_30
Jr. ()
441© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
442
C. J. Rees et al.

Differential Diagnosis

• GERD may present with the acute onset of chest pain similar to acute cardiac pain, so acute myocardial infarction (MI) and the other causes of acute chest pain have to be considered in the differential diagnosis.
• The presentation of GERD also may be similar to that of esophagitis, peptic ulcer disease (PUD), biliary disease, pancreatitis, hepatitis, and gastrointesti­nal motility disorders.
Pathophysiology andEtiology
• Reux of gastric contents into the esophagus occurs several times a day in most people as a normal physiologic event. It becomes abnormal, and consid­ered GERD, when it is associated with symptoms or pathologic changes within the gastrointestinal or respiratory tracts. The Montreal Classication denes GERD as “A condition that develops when the reux of stomach con­tents causes troublesome symptoms and/or complications.”
• The lower esophageal sphincter (LES) is the main physiologic barrier to reux.
• When reux does occur, both mechanical (gravity) and physiologic (peristal­sis, saliva, esophageal secretions) forces can help push gastric contents back into the stomach.
• GERD may be caused or worsened by anything that reduces LES pressure, decreases esophageal motility or gastric emptying time, or directly irritates the esophageal mucosa, as well as by mechanical means.
• Factors that may reduce LES pressure include drugs (anticholinergic agents, benzodiazepines, calcium-channel blockers, progesterone), foods (chocolate, caffeine, high-fat foods, peppermint, nitrates), nicotine, and alcohol.
• Conditions that decrease esophageal motility include achalasia, diabetes, and scleroderma.
• Factors and conditions that may decrease gastric emptying time include anti­cholinergic medications, diabetic gastroparesis, and gastric outlet obstruction.
• Substances that may act as direct irritants to the gastric mucosa include caf­feine, citrus products, and tomato-based products.
• Mechanical factors include stooping, bending forward, the Valsalva maneu­ver, and the supine position.
• GERD is much more common in obese patients.
• Hiatal hernia (prolapse of a portion of the stomach through the diaphragmatic esophageal hiatus) also is considered a risk factor for GERD.
30 Gastroesophageal Reux Disease

Presentation

Typical/“Classic”

• The most common complaint is heartburn, a burning sensation from the sub­xyphoid region radiating into the neck or pharynx.
• Typically, symptoms worsen after large meals or with recumbency.
• Symptoms usually are relieved with antacids; however, this effect is not pathognomonic and does not reliably exclude cardiac causes of pain.
• Other common presenting complaints include regurgitation and nausea, but usually these are associated with heartburn.
• An uncommon but somewhat specic symptom of GERD is water brash, a vagally mediated increase in saliva production often perceived by patients as “foaming at the mouth.”
• GERD also may cause extraesophageal symptoms, including asthma (or worsening asthma) from reux associated with aspiration, chronic cough, hoarse voice, recurrent laryngitis or sore throat, frequent throat clearing, and dental problems.

Atypical

443
• It is important to remember that GERD symptoms can mimic those of acute MI.Patients may describe the acute onset of chest pressure, dull chest pain, or squeezing. The radiation pattern can mimic that of acute MI and radiate to the back, jaw, or arm.
• Dysphagia (difculty swallowing) and odynophagia (painful swallowing) are uncommon symptoms for GERD and should prompt further evaluation for other causes.
• Globus is a perception of fullness or a lump in the throat, unrelated to swal­lowing. It is not a usual symptom of GERD, and its presence should prompt a search for other causes. It often is thought to be related to emotional stress or to have a functional basis.

Primary Differential Considerations

• Prompt consideration also should be given to the possible diagnosis of:
• Acute coronary syndrome
• Esophageal spasm
• Biliary colic
• Gastritis
• Hiatal hernia
444
C. J. Rees et al.
History andPhysical Exam
Findings That Conrm Diagnosis
• Because the diagnosis of GERD can be applied only for symptoms, there are no tests that are conrmatory. A classic history of heartburn, worse after large meals, and recumbency relieved by antacids is enough to make a presumptive diagnosis of GERD.
• The physical exam is often unremarkable and not helpful in making the diagnosis.

Factors That Suggest Diagnosis

• A classic presentation as above suggests the diagnosis.
• The diagnosis of GERD should be kept within the differential when evaluat­ing a patient for new-onset or worsening asthma not explained by other fac­tors, as a cause of chronic cough or laryngitis, and for patients with unexplained hoarseness.

Factors That Exclude Diagnosis

• GERD may exist even in the absence of symptoms; there is no factor that excludes the diagnosis.
• Normal endoscopy does not exclude the diagnosis of GERD.

Ancillary Studies

Laboratory

• Lab tests are unhelpful in the diagnosis of GERD and often are used only to evaluate for other causes of the patient’s symptoms.

Imaging

• Imaging usually is not helpful or indicated for the diagnosis of GERD.
• Patients may need imaging or endoscopy to exclude other diagnoses.
30 Gastroesophageal Reux Disease
• Patients with symptoms such as dysphagia, odynophagia, weight loss, or other constitutional symptoms may need endoscopy to exclude malignancy and other serious causes of their symptoms.

Special Populations

Age
• GERD occurs in all age groups, including infants and children.
• In children, the term gastroesophogeal reux disease applies when the reux results in untoward complications, such as esophagitis, respiratory events, or growth failure.
• There is some evidence that severe reux in infancy predisposes children
to GERD later in life.
• GERD and asthma often overlap in children and adolescents, but current data do not suggest that control of one has a signicant clinical impact on the other.

Co-morbidities

445
• GERD may coexist with any other condition.
• Conditions that may make GERD more likely include obesity, diabetes, acha­lasia, motility disorders, and hiatal hernia.
Pitfalls inDiagnosis
Critical Steps Not toMiss
• It is critical to consider the more immediately life-threatening causes of chest and abdominal pain.

Mimics

• GERD is a classic mimic of acute MI.
• GERD also can mimic PUD, all the causes of esophagitis, biliary disease, pancreatitis, and esophageal and gastric motility disorders.