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CHAPTER 4. Hops and Hemp
John McPartland has greatly influenced the systematic discussion of cannabis. References for his work in
this chapter are as follows.
McPartland, J. “Cannabis: The Plant, Its Evolution, and Its Genetics—with an Emphasis on Italy.” Rendiconti Lincei:
Scienze Fisiche e Naturali 31, no. 4 (2020): 939–948.
McPartland, John M. “Cannabis Systematics at the Levels of Family, Genus, and Species.” Cannabis and
Cannabinoid Research 3, no. 1 (2018): 203–212.
McPartland, John M., and Geoffrey W. Guy. “Models of Cannabis Taxonomy, Cultural Bias, and Conflicts between
Scientific and Vernacular Names.” Botanical Review 83, no. 4 (2017): 327–381.
McPartland, John M., and Ernest Small. “A Classification of Endangered High-THC Cannabis (Cannabis sativa
subsp. indica) Domesticates and Their Wild Relatives.” PhytoKeys 144 (2020): 81–112.
The following are references on the spread of cannabis.
Charitos, Ioannis A., Roberto Gagliano-Candela, Luigi Santacroce, and Lucrezia Bottalico. “The Cannabis Spread
throughout the Continents and Its Therapeutic Use in History.” Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders—
Drug Targets 21, no. 3 (2021): 407–417.
Yang, Mei-Qing, Robin van Velzen, Freek T. Bakker, Ali Sattarian, De-Zhu Li, and Ting-Shuang Yi. “Molecular
Phylogenetics and Character Evolution of Cannabaceae.” Taxon 62, no. 3 (2013): 473–485.
Zuardi, Antonio Waldo. “History of Cannabis as a Medicine: A Review.” Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry 28, no. 2
(2006): 153–157.
Taxonomic problems in cannabis are discussed in the following sources.
Pollio, Antonino. “The Name of Cannabis: A Short Guide for Nonbotanists.” Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research
1, no. 1 (2016): 234–238.
Schräder, Nicholas H. B., Marieke C. Bolling, and André P. Wolff. “Letter to the Editor: Ordering the Chaos in
Cannabinoid-Related Research: Is It Time for a Task Force on Taxonomy?” Cannabis and Cannabinoid
Research 6, no. 2 (2021): 174–175.
Schultes, Richard Evans, William M. Klein, Timothy Plowman, and Tom E. Lockwood. “Cannabis: an example of
taxonomic neglect.” In Cannabis and Culture, edited by Vera Rubin, 21–38. Mouton Publishers, 1975.
CHAPTER 5. A Complicated Sex Life
The biochemistry and vegetative parts of cannabis are discussed in detail in the following biochemistry
publications.
Aiello, Gilda, Elisa Fasoli, Giovanna Boschin, Carmen Lammi, Chiara Zanoni, Attilio Citterio, and Anna Arnoldi.
“Proteomic Characterization of Hempseed (Cannabis sativa L.).” Journal of Proteomics 147 (2016): 187–
196.
Cattaneo, Chiara, Annalisa Givonetti, Valeria Leoni, Nicoletta Guerrieri, Marcello Manfredi, Annamaria Giorgi, and
Maria Cavaletto. “Biochemical Aspects of Seeds from Cannabis sativa L. Plants Grown in a Mountain
Environment.” Scientific Reports 11, no. 1 (2021): 1–19.
Kakabouki, Ioanna, Alexandros Tataridas, Antonios Mavroeidis, Angeliki Kousta, Stella Karydogianni, Charikleia Zisi,
Varvara Kouneli, et al. “Effect of Colonization of Trichoderma harzianum on Growth Development and CBD
Content of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.).” Microorganisms 9, no. 3 (2021): 518.
Mamone, Gianfranco, Gianluca Picariello, Alessia Ramondo, Maria Adalgisa Nicolai, and Pasquale Ferranti.
“Production, Digestibility and Allergenicity of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Protein Isolates.” Food Research
International 115 (2019): 562–571.
Park, Seul-Ki, Jong-Bok Seo, and Mi-Young Lee. “Proteomic Profiling of Hempseed Proteins from Cheungsam.”
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA)—Proteins and Proteomics 1824, no. 2 (2012): 374–382.
Plant sex, plant genitals, and plant mating are covered in the following articles, some of which concern
plants in general and some of which focus on cannabis. I also include a short reminder that plants do not
have brains like ours.
DeSalle, Rob, and Ian Tattersall. “Do Plants Have Brains?” Natural History, November 2008.
Islam, Mohammad Moinul, Zed Rengel, Paul Storer, Kadambot H. M. Siddique, and Zakaria M. Solaiman. “Industrial
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Varieties and Seed Pre-Treatments Affect Seed Germination and Early Growth of
Seedlings.” Agronomy 12, no. 1 (2021): 6.
Karsten, H. “IX.—On the Sexual Life of Plants, and Parthenogenesis.” Annals and Magazine of Natural History 8,
no. 44 (1861): 81–99.
Parsons, Jessica L., Sara L. Martin, Tracey James, Gregory Golenia, Ekaterina A. Boudko, and Shelley R. Hepworth.
“Polyploidization for the Genetic Improvement of Cannabis sativa.” Frontiers in Plant Science 10 (2019):
476.
Punja, Zamir K., and Janesse E. Holmes. “Hermaphroditism in Marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) Inflorescences—
Impact on Floral Morphology, Seed Formation, Progeny Sex Ratios, and Genetic Variation.” Frontiers in Plant
Science 11 (2020): 718.
Renner, Susanne S. “The Relative and Absolute Frequencies of Angiosperm Sexual Systems: Dioecy, Monoecy,
Gynodioecy, and an Updated Online Database.” American Journal of Botany 101, no. 10 (2014): 1588–1596.
Vijverberg, Kitty, Peggy Ozias-Akins, and M. Eric Schranz. “Identifying and Engineering Genes for Parthenogenesis in
Plants.” Frontiers in Plant Science 10 (2019): 128.
CHAPTER 6. Buds
I highly recommend the following two of Darwin’s classic barnacle papers. They are amazing in their scope,
and the writing is beautiful.
Darwin, C. R. Monograph on the Sub-Class Cirripedia: The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes (1851),
F339.1.
Darwin, C. R. Monograph on the Sub-Class Cirripedia: The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); The Verrucidae,
etc. (1854), F339.2.
Plants and the fossil record are covered in the following articles from the scientific literature. Some are
dense, but most are good fun to read.
Bateman, Richard M. “Hunting the Snark: The Flawed Search for Mythical Jurassic Angiosperms.” Journal of
Experimental Botany 71, no. 1 (2020): 22–35.
Cui, Da-Fang, Yemao Hou, Pengfei Yin, and Xin Wang. “A Jurassic Flower Bud from China.” Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 521 (2022).
Harris, Liam W., and T. Jonathan Davies. “A Complete Fossil-Calibrated Phylogeny of Seed Plant Families as a Tool
for Comparative Analyses: Testing the ‘Time For Speciation’ Hypothesis.” PloS One 11, no. 10 (2016):
e0162907.
Janssens, Steven B., Thomas L. P. Couvreur, Arne Mertens, Gilles Dauby, Leo-Paul M. J. Dagallier, Samuel Vanden
Abeele, Filip Vandelook, et al. “A Large-Scale Species Level Dated Angiosperm Phylogeny for Evolutionary
and Ecological Analyses.” Biodiversity Data Journal 8 (2020): e39677.
Morris, Jennifer L., Mark N. Puttick, James W. Clark, Dianne Edwards, Paul Kenrick, Silvia Pressel, Charles H.
Wellman, Ziheng Yang, Harald Schneider, and Philip C. J. Donoghue. “The Timescale of Early Land Plant
Evolution.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 10 (2018): E2274–E2283.
Silvestro, Daniele, Christine D. Bacon, Wenna Ding, Qiuyue Zhang, Philip C. J. Donoghue, Alexandre Antonelli, and
Yaowu Xing. “Fossil Data Support a Pre-Cretaceous Origin of Flowering Plants.” Nature Ecology & Evolution
5, no. 4 (2021): 449–457.
Wang, Xin. “A Novel Early Cretaceous Flower and Its Implications on Flower Derivation.” Biology 11, no. 7 (2022):
1036.
The following two citations address floral development from the historical perspective.
Dornelas, Marcelo Carnier, and Odair Dornelas. “From Leaf to Flower: Revisiting Goethe’s Concepts on the
‘Metamorphosis’ of Plants.” Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology 17, no. 4 (2005): 335–344.
Richards, Robert J. “The Foundations of Archetype Theory in Evolutionary Biology: Kant, Goethe, and Carus.”
Republics of Letters 6, no. 1 (2018).
These publications address the ABC (ABCE) model of floral development.
Alvarez-Buylla, Elena R., Mariana Benítez, Adriana Corvera-Poiré, Álvaro Chaos Cador, Stefan de Folter, Alicia
Gamboa de Buen, Adriana Garay-Arroyo, et al. “Flower Development.” Arabidopsis Book 8 (2010): e0127.
Bowman, John L., David R. Smyth, and Elliot M. Meyerowitz. “The ABC Model of Flower Development: Then and
Now.” Development 139, no. 22 (2012): 4095– 4098.
Chanderbali, Andre S., Brent A. Berger, Dianella G. Howarth, Pamela S. Soltis, and Douglas E. Soltis. “Evolving
Ideas on the Origin and Evolution of Flowers: New Perspectives in the Genomic Era.” Genetics 202, no. 4
(2016): 1255–1265.
Irish, Vivian. “The ABC Model of Floral Development.” Current Biology 27, no. 17 (2017): R887–R890.
Litt, Amy, and Elena M. Kramer. “The ABC Model and the Diversification of Floral Organ Identity.” Seminars in
Cell & Developmental Biology 21, no. 1 (2010): 129–137.
Zahn, Laura M., Baomin Feng, and Hong Ma. “Beyond the ABC-Model: Regulation of Floral Homeotic Genes.”
Advances in Botanical Research 44 (2006): 163–207.
The following articles concern cannabis flower development specifically.
Leme, Flávia M., Jürg Schönenberger, Yannick M. Staedler, and Simone P. Teixeira. “Comparative Floral Development
Reveals Novel Aspects of Structure and Diversity of Flowers in Cannabaceae.” Botanical Journal of the
Linnean Society 193, no. 1 (2020): 64–83.
Leme, Flávia M., Yannick M. Staedler, Jürg Schönenberger, and Simone P. Teixeira. “Floral Morphogenesis of Celtis
Species: Implications for Breeding System and Reduced Floral Structure.” American Journal of Botany 108,
no. 9 (2021): 1595–1611.
Punja, Zamir K., and Janesse E. Holmes. “Hermaphroditism in Marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) Inflorescences—
Impact on Floral Morphology, Seed Formation, Progeny Sex Ratios, and Genetic Variation.” Frontiers in Plant
Science 11 (2020): 718.
Spitzer-Rimon, Ben, Shai Duchin, Nirit Bernstein, and Rina Kamenetsky. “Architecture and Florogenesis in Female
Cannabis sativa Plants.” Frontiers in Plant Science 10 (2019): 350.
The quote from Goethe appears in a letter of 1787 to J. G. Herder, quoted in the following volume.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Goethe’s Botanical Writings. Translated by Bertha Mueller, with an introduction by
Charles J. Engard. University of Hawaii Press, 1952.
CHAPTER 7. Decarboxylation
The conversion of THCA to THC is discussed in detail in Dussy et al. (2005). The history of smoking pipes
can be found in Sesli and Yeg˘enog˘lu (2018) and in the classic paper by Philips (1983). Gilman and Zhou
(2004) review the history of smoking and survey smoking devices. Shekhar and Hannah-Shmouni (2020)
discuss the dangers of sharing water pipe devices in the age of COVID-19. Gates et al. (2014) discuss the
impact of cannabinoids on the respiratory tract. Philips (1983) offers a wonderful summary of African
smoking habits and devices. The paper by the “father of Indian pharmacology” and his colleague (Chopra
and Chopra 1957) is a remarkable historical pharmacological document on the use of marijuana via
foodstuffs in India.
Chopra, I. C., and Ram Nath Chopra. “The Use of the Cannabis Drugs in India.” Bulletin on Narcotics 9, no. 1
(1957): 4–29.
Dussy, F. E., C. Hamberg, M. Luginbühl, T. Schwerzmann, and T. A. Briellmann. “Isolation of Δ9-THCA-A from
Hemp and Analytical Aspects Concerning the Determination of Δ9-THC in Cannabis Products.” Forensic
Science International, 149, no. 1 (2005): 3–10.
Gates P., A. Jaffe, J. Copeland. “Cannabis Smoking and Respiratory Health: Consideration of the Literature.”
Respirology 19, no. 5 (2014): 655–662.
Gilman, Sander L., and Zhou Xun, eds. Smoke: A Global History of Smoking. Reaktion Books, 2004.
Philips, John Edward. “African Smoking and Pipes.” Journal of African History 24, no. 3 (1983): 303–319.
Sesli, Meltem, and E. Dilşat Yeğenoğlu. “Tobacco in the Historical Process.” In Science, Ecology and Engineering
Research in the Globalizing World, edited by Ilia Christov, Eric Strauss, Abd-Alla Gad, and Isa Curebal, 146–
152. St. Kliment Ohridski University Press, 2018.
Shekhar, Skand, and Fady Hannah-Shmouni. “Hookah Smoking and COVID-19: Call for Action.” Canadian Medical
Association Journal 192, no. 17 (2020): E462–E462.
CHAPTER 8. THC and CBD in the Body
Grotenhermen (2003), Huestis et al. (1992), and Wall and Perez-Reyes (1981) discuss the metabolism of
cannabinoids in the human body. The topical application cutaneous route that CBD can take into the body is
discussed by Baswan et al. (2020). Burstein (2015) and Crippa et al. (2018) offer excellent scholarly
starting points for understanding CBD and the human body. Helander and Fändriks’s (2014) estimation of
the surface area of the digestive tract is a lively technical read. For a clear and concise discussion of the
structure of skin and its role in topical application, see Hwa et al. (2011).
Baswan, Sudhir M., Allison E. Klosner, Kelly Glynn, Arun Rajgopal, Kausar Malik, Sunghan Yim, and Nathan Stern.
“Therapeutic Potential of Cannabidiol (CBD) for Skin Health and Disorders.” Clinical, Cosmetic and
Investigational Dermatology 13 (2020): 927–942.
Burstein, Sumner. “Cannabidiol (CBD) and Its Analogs: A Review of Their Effects on Inflammation.” Bioorganic &
Medicinal Chemistry 23, no. 7 (2015): 1377–1385.
Crippa, José A., Francisco S. Guimarães, Alline C. Campos, and Antonio W. Zuardi. “Translational Investigation of the
Therapeutic Potential of Cannabidiol (CBD): Toward a New Age.” Frontiers in Immunology 9 (2018): 2009.
Grotenhermen, F. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Cannabinoids. Clinical Pharmacok inetics 42, no. 4
(2003): 327–360.
Helander, Herbert F., and Lars Fändriks. “Surface Area of the Digestive Tract—Revisited.” Scandinavian Journal
of Gastroenterology 49, no. 6 (2014): 681–689.
Huestis, M.A., J. E. Henningfield, and E. J. Cone. “Blood Cannabinoids. I. Absorption of THC and Formation of 11-
OH-THC and THC-COOH during and after Smoking Marijuana.” Journal of Analytical Toxicology 16, no. 5
(1992): 276–282.
Hwa, Charlotte, Eugene A. Bauer, and David E. Cohen. “Skin Biology.” Dermatologic Therapy 24, no. 5 (2011):
464–470.
Wall, M.E., and M. Perez-Reyes. “The Metabolism of Delta 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and Related Cannabinoids in
Man.” Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 21, no. S1 (1981): 178S–189S.
CHAPTER 9. A Plant of (More Than) 1,001 Chemicals
A comprehensive review of the biochemical fecundity of marijuana plants can be found in the following
article.
Andre, Christelle M., Jean-François Hausman, and Gea Guerriero. “Cannabis sativa: The Plant of the Thousand and
One Molecules.” Frontiers in Plant Science 7 (2016): 19.
The following three papers address the biology of secondary plant compounds in cannabis.
Panche, Archana N., Arvind D. Diwan, and Sadanandavalli R. Chandra. “Flavonoids: An Overview.” Journal of
Nutritional Science 5 (2016): e47.
Popescu-Spineni, Dana Maria, Anca Magdalena Munteanu, Constantin Ionescu-Târgovişte, Costin Militaru, and
Alexandru Constantin Moldoveanu. “Cannabis Terpenes in Relation to Human Health.” Revue Roumaine de
Chimie 66, no. 7 (2021): 583–592.
Watts, Sophie, Michel McElroy, Zoë Migicovsky, Hugo Maassen, Robin van Velzen, and Sean Myles. “Cannabis
Labelling Is Associated with Genetic Variation in Terpene Synthase Genes.” Nature Plants 7, no. 10 (2021):
1330–1334.
The entourage effect is addressed in the following citations.
Finlay, David B., Kathleen J. Sircombe, Mhairi Nimick, Callum Jones, and Michelle Glass. “Terpenoids from Cannabis
Do Not Mediate an Entourage Effect by Acting at Cannabinoid Receptors.” Frontiers in Pharmacology 11
(2020): 359.
Russo, Ethan B. “The Case for the Entourage Effect and Conventional Breeding of Clinical Cannabis: No ‘Strain,’ No
Gain.” Frontiers in Plant Science 9 (2018): 1969.
The structure and biology of trichomes are covered in the following scientific papers.
Conneely, Lee James, Ramil Mauleon, Jos Mieog, Bronwyn J. Barkla, and Tobias Kretz-schmar. “Characterization of
the Cannabis sativa Glandular Trichome Proteome.” PloS One 16, no. 4 (2021): e0242633.
Livingston, Samuel J., Teagen D. Quilichini, Judith K. Booth, Darren C. J. Wong, Kim H. Rensing, Jessica Laflamme-
Yonkman, Simone D. Castellarin, Joerg Bohlmann, Jonathan E. Page, and A. Lacey Samuels. “Cannabis
Glandular Trichomes Alter Morphology and Metabolite Content during Flower Maturation.” Plant Journal 101,
no. 1 (2020): 37–56.
Livingston, Samuel J., Kim H. Rensing, Jonathan E. Page, and A. Lacey Samuels. “A Polarized Supercell Produces
Specialized Metabolites in Cannabis Trichomes.” Current Biology 32, no. 18 (2022): 4040–4047.
Serna, Laura, and Cathie Martin. “Trichomes: Different Regulatory Networks Lead to Convergent Structures.”
Trends in Plant Science 11, no. 6 (2006): 274–280.
Tanney, Cailun A. S., Rachel Backer, Anja Geitmann, and Donald L. Smith. “Cannabis Glandular Trichomes: A
Cellular Metabolite Factory.” Frontiers in Plant Science 12 (2021): 1923.
Yeo, Hock Chuan, Vaishnavi Amarr Reddy, Bong-Gyu Mun, Sing Hui Leong, Savitha Dhandapani, Sarojam Rajani, and
In-Cheol Jang. “Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Coordinated Transcriptional Regulation of Central
and Secondary Metabolism in the Trichomes of Cannabis Cultivars.” International Journal of Molecular
Sciences 23, no. 15 (2022): 8310.
Ian Tattersall’s and my previous books on wine, beer, and spirits and Neil Shubin’s excellent book on
evolution are referenced below.
Tattersall, Ian, and Rob DeSalle. A Natural History of Wine. Yale University Press, 2015.
DeSalle, Rob, and Ian Tattersall. A Natural History of Beer. Yale University Press, 2019.
DeSalle, Rob, and Ian Tattersall. Distilled: A Natural History of Spirits. Yale University Press, 2022.
Shubin, Neil. Your Inner Fish: A Journey into the 3.5-Billion-Year History of the Human Body. Vintage, 2008.
CHAPTER 10. Messy Brains and Marijuana
Many books and articles in the primary literature address the brain and neural structure. I have only included
a few.
Cesario, Joseph, David J. Johnson, and Heather L. Eisthen. “Your Brain Is Not an Onion with a Tiny Reptile Inside.”
Current Directions in Psychological Science 29, no. 3 (2020): 255–260.
DeSalle, Rob, and Ian Tattersall. The Brain: Big Bangs, Behaviors, and Beliefs. Yale University Press, 2012.
Marcus, Gary. Kluge: The Haphazard Evolution of the Human Mind. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009.
Moroz, Leonid L., and Daria Y. Romanova. “Selective Advantages of Synapses in Evolution.” Frontiers in Cell and
Developmental Biology 9 (2021): 726563.
CHAPTER 11. Brain Science, Bliss, and the Endocannabinoid System
I include two works by the late Dr. Raphael Mechoulam in the listing below. Minelli provides a thorough
review of organs and organ systems in animals, while Castillo et al., Lee, Lu and Mackie, and Shao et al.
offer helpful summaries of the endocannabinoid system at both the body and molecular levels. Pain and its
alleviation by endocannabinoids are discussed in the articles by Mlost et al., Muralidhar et al., and Vucˇkovic´
et al.
Castillo, Pablo E., Thomas J. Younts, Andrés E. Chávez, and Yuki Hashimotodani. “Endocannabinoid Signaling and
Synaptic Function.” Neuron 76, no. 1 (2012): 70–81.
Lee, Martin A. “The Discovery of the Endocannabinoid System.” Prop 215 Era (2012).
Lu, Hui-Chen, and Ken Mackie. “An Introduction to the Endogenous Cannabinoid System.” Biological Psychiatry
79, no. 7 (2016): 516–525.
Maccarrone, Mauro. “Missing Pieces to the Endocannabinoid Puzzle.” Trends in Molecular Medicine 26, no. 3
(2020): 263–272.
Maccarrone, Mauro. “Tribute to Professor Raphael Mechoulam, the Founder of Canna-binoid and Endocannabinoid
Research.” Molecules 27, no. 1 (2022): 323.
Mechoulam, Raphael. “A Delightful Trip along the Pathway of Cannabinoid and Endo-cannabinoid Chemistry and
Pharmacology.” Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 63 (2023): 1–13.
Mechoulam, Raphael, and Linda A. Parker. “The Endocannabinoid System and the Brain.” Annual Review of
Psychology 64 (2013): 21–47.
Minelli, Alessandro. “On the Nature of Organs and Organ Systems—A Chapter in the History and Philosophy of
Biology.” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 9 (2021): 745564.
Mlost, Jakub, Marta Bryk, and Katarzyna Starowicz. “Cannabidiol for Pain Treatment: Focus on Pharmacology and
Mechanism of Action.” International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 22 (2020): 8870.
Muralidhar Reddy, P., Nancy Maurya, and Bharath Kumar Velmurugan. “Medicinal Use of Synthetic Cannabinoids—
A Mini Review.” Current Pharmacology Reports 5 (2019): 1–13.
Shao, Zhenhua, Jie Yin, Karen Chapman, Magdalena Grzemska, Lindsay Clark, Junmei Wang, and Daniel M.
Rosenbaum. “High-Resolution Crystal Structure of the Human CB1 Cannabinoid Receptor.” Nature 540, no.
7634 (2016): 602–606.
Vučković, Sonja, Dragana Srebro, Katarina Savić Vujović, Čedomir Vučetić, and Milica Prostran. “Cannabinoids and
Pain: New Insights from Old Molecules.” Frontiers in Pharmacology 9 (2018): 1259.
CHAPTER 12. Genes, Genomes, and Cannabis
Kovalchuk et al., Cai et al., and Hurgobin et al. present comprehensive summaries of genomics research in
cannabis. Braich et al., Jenkins and Orsburn, Van Bakel et al., and Gao et al. offer the first reports of
genome sequence of different cannabis strains. McKernan et al., Laverty et al., and Grassa et al. are the
sources used to construct table 12.1. Pisupati et al. discuss the role of transposable elements in the
genomic evolution of cannabis.
Braich, Shivraj, Rebecca C. Baillie, German C. Spangenberg, and Noel O. I. Cogan. “A New and Improved Genome
Sequence of Cannabis sativa.” BioRxiv (2020): 422592.
Cai, Sen, Zhiyuan Zhang, Suyun Huang, Xu Bai, Ziying Huang, Yiping Jason Zhang, Likun Huang, et al.
“CannabisGDB: A Comprehensive Genomic Database for Cannabis sativa L.” Plant Biotechnology Journal
19, no. 5 (2021): 857–859.
Connor, Jason P., Daniel Stjepanović, Bernard Le Foll, Eva Hoch, Alan J. Budney, and Wayne D. Hall. “Cannabis Use
and Cannabis Use Disorder.” Nature Reviews Disease Primers 7, no. 1 (2021): 1–24.
Gao, Shan, Baishi Wang, Shanshan Xie, Xiaoyu Xu, Jin Zhang, Li Pei, Yongyi Yu, Weifei Yang, and Ying Zhang. “A
High-Quality Reference Genome of Wild Cannabis sativa.” Horticulture Research 7 (2020).
Grassa, Christopher J., George D. Weiblen, Jonathan P. Wenger, Clemon Dabney, Shane G. Poplawski, S. Timothy
Motley, Todd P. Michael, and C. J. Schwartz. “A New Cannabis Genome Assembly Associates Elevated
Cannabidiol (CBD) with Hemp Introgressed into Marijuana.” New Phytologist 230, no. 4 (2021): 1665–1679.
Hurgobin, Bhavna, Muluneh Tamiru-Oli, Matthew T. Welling, Monika S. Doblin, Antony Bacic, James Whelan, and
Mathew G. Lewsey. “Recent Advances in Cannabis sativa Genomics Research.” New Phytologist 230, no. 1
(2021): 73–89.
Jenkins, Conor, and Ben Orsburn. “The First Publicly Available Annotated Genome for Cannabis Plants.” BioRxiv
(2019): 786186.
Kovalchuk, I., M. Pellino, P. Rigault, R. Van Velzen, J. Ebersbach, J. R. Ashnest, M. Mau, et al. “The Genomics of
Cannabis and Its Close Relatives.” Annual Review of Plant Biology 71 (2020): 713–739.
Laverty, Kaitlin U., Jake M. Stout, Mitchell J. Sullivan, Hardik Shah, Navdeep Gill, Larry Holbrook, Gintaras Deikus, et
al. “A Physical and Genetic Map of Cannabis sativa Identifies Extensive Rearrangements at the THC/CBD
Acid Synthase Loci.” Genome Research 29, no. 1 (2019): 146–156.
McKernan, Kevin J., Yvonne Helbert, Liam T. Kane, Heather Ebling, Lei Zhang, Biao Liu, Zachary Eaton, et al.
“Sequence and Annotation of 42 Cannabis Genomes Reveals Extensive Copy Number Variation in Cannabinoid
Synthesis and Pathogen Resistance Genes.” BioRxiv (2020): 894428.
McPartland, John M., Isabel Matias, Vincenzo Di Marzo, and Michelle Glass. “Evolutionary Origins of the
Endocannabinoid System.” Gene 370 (2006): 64–74.
Pisupati, Rahul, Daniela Vergara, and Nolan C. Kane. “Diversity and Evolution of the Repetitive Genomic Content in
Cannabis sativa.” BMC Genomics 19, no. 1 (2018): 1–9.
Van Bakel, Harm, Jake M. Stout, Atina G. Cote, Carling M. Tallon, Andrew G. Sharpe, Timothy R. Hughes, and
Jonathan E. Page. “The Draft Genome and Transcriptome of Cannabis sativa.” Genome Biology 12, no. 10
(2011): 1–18.