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Chapter
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11
side effects than using a 940 nm
diode laser. Dermatol Surg
2005;31:1678.
97. Almeida J, Mackay E, Javier J, et al.
Saphenous laser ablation at 1470 nm
targets the vein wall, not blood. Vasc
Endovascular Surg 2009;43:467.
98. Pannier F, Rabe E, Maurins U. First
results with a new 1470-nm diode
laser for endovenous ablation of
incompetent saphenous veins.
Phlebology 2009;24:26.
99. Doganci S, Demirkilic U. Comparison
of two different laser wavelengths and
fibers in the treatment of great
saphenous vein varicosities: a
prospective randomized controlled
study, Submitted to Eur J Vasc
Endovasc Surg 2009.
100. Vuylsteke M, Van Dorpe J, Roelens J,
et al. Endovenous laser treatment: a
morphological study in an animal
model. Phlebology 2009;24:166.
101. Vuylsteke ME, Vandekerckhove PJ, De
Bo T, et al. Use of a new endovenous
laser device: results of the 1,500 nm
laser. Ann Vasc Surg 2010;24:205.
102. Gibson KD, Ferris BL, Polissar N, et al.
Endovenous laser treatment of the small
[corrected] saphenous vein: efficacy and
complications. J Vasc Surg 2007;45:795.
103. Park SJ, Yim SB, Cha DW, et al.
Endovenous laser treatment of the
small saphenous vein with a 980-nm
diode laser: early results. Dermatol
Surg 2008;34:517.
104. Jung IM, Min SI, Heo SC, et al.
Combined endovenous laser
treatment and ambulatory
phlebectomy for the treatment of
saphenous vein incompetence.
Phlebology 2008;23:172.
105. Viarengo LM, Potério-Filho J,
Potério GM, et al. Endovenous laser
treatment for varicose veins in
patients with active ulcers:
measurement of intravenous and
perivenous temperatures during the
procedure. Dermatol Surg 2007;33:
1234.
106. Fernández CF, Roizental M, Carvallo J.
Combined endovenous laser therapy
and microphlebectomy in the
treatment of varicose veins: Efficacy
and complications of a large singlecenter experience. J Vasc Surg
2008;48:947.
Intravascular Approaches to the Treatment of Varicose Veins: Radiofrequency and Lasers
314
C H A P T E R
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Clinical Methods for Sclerotherapy of Telangiectasias
12
Historical Review of Techniques
Sclerosing treatment for telangiectasias was ignored until the
1930s when Biegeleisen
mally or subcutaneously into the general area of capillary
enlargement. However, this procedure caused severe necrosis
and lack of effect on the telangiectasias. Biegeleisen then
developed and popularized a method of ‘microinjection’ of
telangiectasias with sclerosing agents through the use of an
‘extremely fine metal needle’ (later described as a handmade
32- or 33-gauge needle).
rhuate in the treatment of these fragile small vessels, which
produced multiple complications, including pigmentation,
cutaneous necrosis, and allergic reactions. Thereafter, sclerotherapy treatment of leg telangiectasias was thought of disparagingly by most practitioners
5
Foley,
Tretbar,6 and Shields and Jansen7 published reports of
procedures that had achieved excellent results with few adverse
sequelae. In these procedures, solutions less caustic to the
telangiectasia were used – hypertonic saline (HS) with or
without heparin and lidocaine (15% to 30%), and sodium
tetradecyl sulfate (STS) 1% – as were techniques that ensured
accurate placement of the solution into the blood vessels (use
of 30-gauge needles).
1
injected sclerosing agents intrader-
2
Unfortunately, he used sodium mor-
3
until the 1970s when Alderman,4
Indication
In the vast majority of cases, spider veins connect to under-
lying varicose veins either directly or through tributaries (Fig.
12.2) (see Chapter 3).
of the thigh when the lateral network described by Albanese
is visible (Fig. 12.3). Doppler examination shows that almost
all visible blue reticular veins are connected to telangiecta-
14,15
sia.
Transillumination shows exactly the same pattern (Fig.
12.4). Therefore, as with varicose veins, treatment should be
directed first at ‘plugging’ the leaking high-pressure outflow at
its point of origin (Fig. 12.5). An appropriate analogy is to
think of spider veins as the ‘fingers’ and the feeding varicose
or reticular vein as the ‘arm’. Treatment should first be directed
to the feeding arm and then, only if necessary, to the spider
fingers. Mariani et al16 found that when telangiectasias were
treated in this manner, 3-year follow-up of 109 patients
showed enduring resolution of telangiectasias in 95%.
There are a number of advantages to this systematic
approach to sclerotherapy. When sclerotherapy is performed
in this manner, the spider veins often disappear without direct
treatment, or decrease markedly in size, thus limiting the
number of injections into the patient. The larger feeding vein
is both easier to cannulate and less likely to rupture when
injected with the sclerosing solution, thus minimizing the
extent of extravasated red blood cells (RBCs) and solution.
Theoretically, this method also should minimize the postsclerotherapy development of hyperpigmentation, cutaneous
necrosis, telangiectatic matting (TM), and recurrence (see
Chapter 8).
11–13
This is typical on the lateral aspect
Microsclerotherapy is theoretically indicated for any small
telangiectatic vessel or venule on the cutaneous surface. Best
results are obtained on superficial linear or radiating vessels
on the lower extremities. Telangiectasias on the face are less
reliably responsive to microsclerotherapy because they probably have more of an arteriolar component and result from
active vasodilation, but they can be treated successfully (see
Chapter 4).
that have a rapid refilling time after diascopy (applying pressure with a glass slide) with the patient recumbent (Fig. 12.1)
are probably also supplied through arteriolar flow (see Chapter
10
3).
and tend to recur after treatment. More importantly, these
arteriolar leg veins are more likely to develop overlying cutaneous necrosis if sclerosing solutions reach the arteriolar
feeding loop (see Chapter 8). They may be more effectively
treated with the pulsed dye laser or intense pulsed light sources
(see Chapter 13).
The description in Chapter 9 of the injection of varicose
veins by first closing off the high-pressure reflux points with
sclerosing solution, followed by sclerotherapy of remaining
abnormal vessels, forms the basis for the rationale of compression sclerotherapy of varicose veins. The treatment of ‘spider’
leg veins should be just as rational.
8,9
In addition, bright-red telangiectasias on the leg
These vessels are relatively recalcitrant to usual therapy
Injection Technique
Preinjection procedure
After a physical examination, including the use of noninvasive
diagnostic techniques when appropriate (see Chapter 5), the
patient is scheduled for a sclerotherapy session and given a
questionnaire (Appendix C), consent form (Appendix D), and
instructional material (Appendix G) to read and complete at
home. Questions about the procedure are answered, and all
reasonable and appropriate complications and adverse sequelae are addressed. An estimate of the approximate number
of treatment sessions and the cost of treatment is given in
writing to prevent any future misunderstandings. Insurance
reimbursement policies are discussed and documented.
Documentation of the relief of symptoms with compression
stockings is helpful in gaining preauthorization of treatment
from insurance companies, but in most cases insurance companies decide on the medical necessity for treatment based on
the size (diameter) and type of vessel, not symptoms. If graduated compression stockings are planned to be applied after
treatment, they are fitted at this time and given to the patient
to wear before treatment. If the stockings produce a resolution
Chapter
Telangiectasias
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12
A
Clinical Methods for Sclerotherapy of Telangiectasias
C
Figure 12.1 Bright-red telangiectasias may have an arteriolar origin. In this series the telangiectasias were located on the medial thigh. A, Appearance while
the leg is raised 45 degrees. B, Blanching with pressure under a glass slide. C, Immediate reappearance on removal of the glass slide while the leg is still
elevated.
Reticular
vein
Fat
Communicating vein
Varix
B
Skin
Deep vein Perforating
vein
Figure 12.2 Simplified anatomy.
of symptoms, the physician can assume that successful sclerotherapy will give the same result. In addition, wearing the
stockings before treatment helps answer any questions about
their fit to ensure they will be worn for the prescribed length
of time after treatment.
On the day of treatment, legs should not be shaved, because
a burning sensation may result when alcohol is applied to the
areas that will be treated. Moisturizers should not be applied
on the day of treatment since they cause unnecessary slipperiness of the skin. Patients are instructed to eat a light meal or
drink juice an hour or so before the procedure in an effort to
prevent a vasovagal reaction. Shorts, a bathing suit, or a
316
Saphenous
trunk
FasciaMuscle
Figure 12.3 Albanese’s lateral network.
Pink halo
No shadow of
Varices
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varicose veins
Injection Technique
Parallax
Reticular vein
Fat
Skin
A
Figure 12.4 Transillumination. A, Principles. B, Reticular veins with a single cold light source. C, Connections between reticular and spider veins.
1
Then reticular veins
Then blue telangiectasias
At last red telangiectasias
In successive sessions or
during the same session
2
3
4
Cold light
source
Saphenous
trunk
FasciaMuscle
B
C
pretreatment photographs will allay concerns regarding the
possibility of unsuccessful previous treatment.
An easy method for measuring the diameter of the telangiectasia was devised by Jerry Garden, M.D. (Chicago, Ill.). He
uses various-sized needles placed next to targeted telangiectasias to compare vessel diameters.
Gauge External diameter (mm)
30 0.30
27 0.41
26 0.46
25 0.51
22 0.71
20 0.89
18 1.27
Figure 12.5 Strategy.
At the end of the treatment session, the treated areas are
recorded on a diagrammatic chart to help check progress at
follow-up examinations (Appendix E). Patients are given
leotard should be worn during the procedure to minimize
both patient and physician embarrassment, since some vessels
may be near the groin. Providing disposable paper shorts to
patients who do not bring them into the office, is an appreciated feature.
With the patient standing on an elevated platform or stool,
a complete set of photographs of the legs is taken from four
different views, and the individual areas that will be treated
are photographed up close (Fig. 12.6). Reticular veins and
telangiectasias are photographed with the patient recumbent.
Photographic documentation is important because patients
frequently cannot remember exactly how their legs appeared
before treatment. Any pretreatment pigmentation irregularities and scars may be blamed later on the sclerotherapy treatment, since patients usually look more closely at their legs
once treatment has begun. In addition, when patients return
in a few years with additional veins and telangiectasia, viewing
written postoperative instructions about activity and the
disposition of their graduated compression stockings and/or
bandages.
Preparation and visualization of the vessels
Microsclerotherapy of spider veins is performed with the
patient in the supine position. Gravitational dilation of telangiectasias is unnecessary to minimize intravascular thrombosis. The skin is wiped with alcohol, making the telangiectasias
more visible because of a change in the index of refraction of
the skin. The glistening effect of alcohol renders the skin more
transparent and helps clean the injection site. In addition,
alcohol may cause some vasodilation of the telangiectasias.
Alternatively, Sadick
with a solution of isopropyl alcohol 70% with acetic acid
0.5%. He found that this solution improves the angle of
refraction better than alcohol alone.
17
recommended that the skin be wiped
317
Chapter
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12
A
Clinical Methods for Sclerotherapy of Telangiectasias
C
B
D
E G
Figure 12.6 Standard photographs taken before treatment begins to allow accurate determinations of treatment outcome. Four standard views are taken
at an F-stop of F8; close-up views are taken at an F-stop of F11, with macro-close-ups taken at an F-stop of F16. All photographs are taken with Kodachrome
ASA 64 film as described in Chapter 15. A, Frontal view. B, Rear view. C, Right side (the right foot is always in front of the left foot). The right knee is slightly
bent so the left inner thigh is better visualized. D, Left side (again with the right foot in front of the left). E, Documentation of scar from previous treatment
for a verruca on the right anterior tibial area, which could later be thought of as a treatment scar. F, Documentation of dermatofibroma on the right medial
knee area, which later could be thought of as punctate pigmentation from treatment. G,
diameter) on the right lateral thigh, along with pretreatment nonspecific light-brown pigmentation, which could later be thought of as postsclerotherapy
hemosiderin pigmentation.
318
F
Close-up view of telangiectasia and venules (0.2–0.6 mm in
Scarborough and Bisaccia
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18
recommended rubbing a few
drops of the sclerosing solution on the skin overlying the
venules with a gloved finger. They used polidocanol (POL),
which also contains alcohol in water as the diluent. We agree
that visualization is enhanced with this technique once the
initial effects of the isopropyl alcohol have worn off through
evaporation. To further enhance visualization of the vessels,
we recommend the use of magnifiers from 2.25× to 5× (see
Chapter 15).
If the vessels are too small to inject, having the patient
stand for approximately 5 minutes and then placing him or
her in a reverse Trendelenburg position may cause some vessel
dilation. Alternatively, inflating a blood pressure cuff to
approximately 40 mmHg proximal to the injection site may
also result in some distention of the vessels. However, this will
also increase the extent of vessel thrombosis and should be
avoided whenever possible.
Equipment
Needle and syringe
Although visualization of the vessel is important in ensuring
proper needle placement, the examiner actually enters the
vessel ‘by feel’. This is particularly true in the injection of
reticular varices. In this situation it is best to pierce the skin
rapidly and advance the needle superficially over the vessel at
a slight angle in a ‘double-piercing’ technique. Penetration of
the vessel is ‘felt’, even when the examiner uses a 30-gauge
needle. Some authors state that the ‘feel’ is enhanced with the
use of a 26- or 27-gauge needle but we find this unnecessary.
In this regard, the use of a glass syringe would best reflect an
impedance to flow if a vessel were not properly cannulated.
However, glass syringes are more cumbersome to use and
regulations regarding sterile technique and other hazards have
relegated glass to undesirable. With the availability of highquality plastic syringes, a good feel can be obtained and
the risk of transmitting blood-borne diseases obviated (see
Chapter 15).
Ideally, the goal of microsclerotherapy is to cannulate the
vessel, injecting sclerosing solution within and not outside of
the vessel wall. Usually, a 30-gauge needle suffices for most
vessels, although some physicians recommend the use of a
32- to 33-gauge needle to decrease the likelihood of inadvertent perivenular injection in the treatment of the smallest
diameter vessels.
20–23
The disadvantages of using a 32-gauge
needle are that it dulls rather quickly and easily bends away
from the targeted vein (see Chapter 15). Boxes of needles
sometimes contain individually defectively sharpened and
dull needles, which give a ‘scratchy’ sensation to the tip. The
physician should never hesitate to change needles if a vein
cannot be cannulated easily. It is usually not the ‘tough skin’
of the patient but a dull needle that makes injection
difficult.
Half-inch (1.27 cm), 30-gauge needles, although 0.3 mm
in diameter, are honed to an oblique bevel that permits
cannulation of vessels 0.1 mm in diameter or smaller. Needles
longer than half an inch are too flexible for reliable and accurate cannulation.
We find the use of a 3-mL syringe filled with 2 mL of
sclerosing solution ideal. This syringe fits well in the palm
of the hand and can be manipulated easily. In addition, the
quantity of solution is usually satisfactory for injecting
either larger venules with 0.5 mL each or multiple smaller
vessels. Alternatively, for those with small hands, a 1-mL
syringe filled with 0.5 mL may be easier to handle, although
a large number of syringes will be needed per treatment
session and a smaller barrel syringe will lead to higher injection pressures.
Injecting with a syringe of smaller diameter will increase
the pressure of the liquid at the tip of the needle; this may
19
Pressure at
tip of needle
> 300 mmHg
180 mmHg
Figure 12.7 Pressure for the same injection force applied on piston. Little
syringes increase the risk of extravasation and necrosis (micro arteriovenous
fistulas, countercurrent injections).
Diameter
of syringe
5 mm
Insulin syringe (1 cm
8 mm
3
2.5 cm
syringe
3
)
Force applied
on piston
250 gF
250 gF
cause more extravasation, more transparietal burn, and may
increase the risk for ‘reverse flow’ injection and subsequent
necrosis. It has been measured and calculated that for the
same force applied to the piston, the pressure can almost
double with a small syringe (Fig. 12.7).
One theoretical disadvantage to multiple injections with
the same needle is that the needle will become dull.
21
However,
this was found not to occur on microscopic examination
of the needle tips after eight injections into the skin (see
Chapter 15).
A small vein infusion set designed for sclerotherapy is
available in various gauge and tubing lengths with
long needles (Kawasumi Laboratories, STS Pharmaceuticals)
(Fig. 12.8). These sets may provide enhanced control for cannulating small veins. In addition, the kink-resistant tubing
allows for flow to ensure that the needle is in a vein and not
an artery.
Table and lighting
Direct lighting should be avoided during treatment because it
may produce a glare from the alcohol-soaked skin. Indirect
lighting allows the best visualization. Sunlight or fluorescent
lighting allows the best visualization of both blue reticular
veins and red telangiectasia. A remote control or dimmer
switch for room light is convenient since it allows dimming
when using transillumination for marking or injections.
The ideal treatment table is one that can be raised or
lowered easily to provide a comfortable position for the physician to ensure injection accuracy. It is helpful if the physician
can easily maneuver around the table on a stool so the best
approach to a given vessel is attainable. Tables that can be
positioned in Trendelenburg or reverse Trendelenburg positions can help in the treatment of an early vasovagal reaction
and in effecting vessel dilation or contraction.
Skin tension
The skin must be taut to facilitate cannulation of the vessel.
This can be accomplished with the help of an assistant who
stretches the patient’s skin in at least two directions. Alternatively, with proper hand placement, the physician alone can
produce three-point tension. Figure 12.9 illustrates the recom-
mended technique for injection. The nondominant hand is
used to stretch the skin adjacent to the treated vessel in two
directions. Then the fifth finger of the dominant hand exerts
countertraction in a third direction. With a little practice, even
the most lax skin, such as that on the thighs, can be brought
under tension with this technique. Skin laxity varies with
patient age, adiposity, and location on the leg.
3
-inch
8
Injection Technique
319
Chapter
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12
Clinical Methods for Sclerotherapy of Telangiectasias
Figure 12.8 Sclerotherapy infusion set with a 30-gauge needle developed
to aid in cannulating the smallest blood vessels. (From STD Pharmaceutical
Products, Ltd, Hereford, England).
Figure 12.10 Needle is bent to 145 degrees with the bevel up to facilitate
accurate insertion into the superficial telangiectasia. (Reprinted from Goldman
MP, Bennett RG: J Am Acad Dermatol 17:167, 1987, with permission from American
Academy of Dermatology.)
1 Puncture skin 2 Lift
Figure 12.9 Proper hand placement to exert three-point traction to aid in
needle insertion. Injection is made into the feeding ‘arm’ of the ‘fingers’ of
the spider vein.
Depth of injection
The location of most leg telangiectasias is in the upper dermis
(see Chapter 1). The most common error in technique is to
place the needle tip deep to the vessel. To enter the vessel at
a less acute angle almost parallel to the skin surface, the physician should bend the needle to 145 degrees with the bevel up
(Fig. 12.10).
tion will either leak out onto the skin or produce an immediate superficial wheal. At times, gentle upward traction can
be applied as the needle is advanced to ensure superficial
placement.
Injection with the bevel of the needle up has the advantage
of minimizing the chance of transecting the vessel. Inserting
the needle bevel down may be easier, probably as the result
of the vacuum produced by the bevel on the skin surface.
An alternate technique is to puncture the skin very superficially, to hook it, to lift it a little in order to bring the vessel
in the same axis as the needle and then to cannulate it
(Fig. 12.11).
320
24
If the needle is not within the vessel, the solu-
3 Catheterize 4 Inject
Figure 12.11 How to puncture a telangiectasia.
When using a sclerosing solution that does not cause cuta-
neous necrosis on extravasation (e.g. STS 0.1–0.25%, POL
0.25–0.75%, and chromated glycerin (CG)), the physician can
inject it as the needle is being inserted into the vessel. As soon
as the bevel is within the vessel, the telangiectasia blanches.
This technique permits the injection of vessels with diameters
smaller than the diameter of the needle, because the tip of
the bevel is thinner than the needle shaft; with injection, the
telangiectasia dilates, allowing complete insertion to occur.
Air-bolus (block) or foam technique
The air-bolus technique – injecting a small amount of air to
clear the vessel before instilling the sclerosing solution – is
recommended by multiple physicians.
minimize the risk of inadvertent intradermal injection. This,
however, may not occur, since once the vessel is cleared of
blood, it is more difficult to see the progress of the sclerosing
solution within its lumen. Therefore, others, including ourselves, have abandoned this technique.
advantage of the air-bolus technique is the decreased risk of
intravascular thrombosis. It is thought that if the vessel is
cleared of blood by first injecting air, the risk of extravasation
of RBCs may also be minimized. However, antegrade and
retrograde filling of the treated vessel occurs after the injection.
Thus, the air-bolus technique may not prevent or lessen the
incidence of post-treatment pigmentation. It is necessary to
4,5,19
It is thought to
21,23
Another theoretical
stress the risk of visual disturbances when using the air-block
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technique.
25,26
Foam injection
Another variant of the air-bolus technique that helps visualize
clearing of the vessels is that of creating a foamy solution
before injection. This can be achieved with the use of any
‘detergent’ class of sclerosing solution such as STS or POL (see
Chapter 7). Green and Morgan
accentuate bubble formation. It is also thought that the foam
causes the sclerosing agent to interact more efficiently with the
endothelium (see Chapters 7 and 9). We have found that
foaming a detergent solution increases its potency at least
twofold while decreasing its caustic toxicity fourfold when a
solution-to-air ratio of 1 : 4 is used. Therefore, the use of foam
in treating telangiectasia less than 1 mm in diameter is tricky.
Until a method is devised to standardize the size and stability
of foam, the physician cannot accurately predict the foam’s
sclerosing strength. We reserve the use of foam for treating
reticular and varicose veins.
To create foam, a small amount of a detergent solution can
be drawn into a glass syringe. While the open end of the
syringe is almost totally closed, the plunger is pulled back,
allowing the introduction of air through the sides of the
plunger and syringe. This technique produces foam of fair
quality that degrades 50% over 1 to 2 minutes.
present in syringes in order to lubricate the barrel, making for
easier compression on the plunger. We have found that the
foam half-life varies over 50% for different syringes.
phlebologists recommend using glass syringes to avoid this
variability in foam half-life. The glass syringe method necessitates appropriate sterilization of the syringe between patients.
Other methods for producing long-lasting reproducible
bubble diameter foam are under development and evaluation.
Sclerosing foams can be made by adding air to the liquid
solution or with a tensioactive agent and CO
Cabrera et al.
30,31
The main difference between sclerotherapy with a solution
and with foam is the longer duration of foam within the
vein and the concentration of the damaging nonpolar end
of the detergent molecule on the endothelial surface. This
promotes sclerosis of the treated vessel with a lower concentration of sclerosing solution. Several methods for preparation of simple sclerotherapy foam have been proposed by
Monfreux,
Frullini.
and two syringes.
32
Benigni et al,33 Mingo-Garcia,34 Tessari,35 and
36
Tessari’s method makes foam with a three-way tap
37
Hennet
used 3-mL glass syringes into which 0.3 to 0.4 mL
of POL is made up as a 0.5% solution and then diluted with
0.1 to 0.2 mL of physiologic serum. The foam is stated to last
for approximately 1 minute with this technique. The syringe
is withdrawn until 0.6 to 1.3 mL of foam fills the syringe. The
foam, as it is injected, prevents the secondary back-bleeding
and is therefore in contact with the vessel wall. Hennet
reported treating 10,262 patients with over 70,000 injections
between November 1995 and September 1998. Less than
0.5 mL of foam was given in each injection, and compression
was not used. He reported excellent results without significant
adverse sequelae.
With Frullini’s method, the foam is simply produced in a
disposable vial with the air contained in the vial or, preferably,
with prior withdrawal of most of the sclerosing solution. A
small connector is inserted into the vial, and simply pulling
and pushing the liquid produces the foam (Figs 12.12 and
12.13). The key point is to generate a turbulence that produces
the foam. Foam can be produced even without the connector
by directly fitting the cone of the syringe into the rubber of
the cap of the vial. However, the connector makes the maneuver easier and permits reuse of the system on the same patient
in order to reproduce the foam for a second injection.
27
added Haemacel to STS to
28
Silicone is
29
Some
, according to
2
Figure 12.12 Syringe inserted into a vial containing approximately 0.2 mL
of sodium tetradecyl sulfate 3%. (From Frullini A: Dermatol Surg 26:705, 2000.)
Figure 12.13 Foam produced by rapid movement of the plunger in and
out of the vial is stable for 5–10 min. (From Frullini A: Dermatol Surg 26:705, 2000.)
Benigni and Sadoun38 compared the efficacy and adverseeffect profile of 0.25% POL foam with 0.25% POL liquid in
treating telangiectasia. They reported a 20% improvement in
efficacy with foam versus liquid, without an increase in adverse
effects. This is contrary to Weiss,
39
who found an increased
incidence of pigmentation and TM when 0.1 or 0.2% STS
foam was used as compared with liquid STS. Forty percent of
patients treated with STS 0.1 or 0.2% foam into telangiectasia
of less than 1 mm had 76% to 100% improvement and 82%
had greater than 50% improvement. The incidence of pigmentation and TM increased to 20% each if a second treatment
was required. Kern
occurs with foam, and we have demonstrated
effects were observed with foam. Finally, and following
the conclusion of the European consensus,
40
has shown that more pigmentation
41
that more side
42
we do not
recommend the use of foam as primary treatment of telangiectatic veins.
Quantity of sclerosing solution per
injection site
The maximum quantity of sclerosing solution that can be
injected safely into a single site during treatment of varicose
veins is detailed in Chapter 9. In short, the physician
should not inject a volume that would travel undiluted easily
into the deep venous system. This is especially important
because contrast material has been noted to flow from
telangiectasias directly into the deep venous system in 2 of
13 patients (13.3%) with digital subtraction phlebography
(Fig. 12.14).
until the physician cannot see further progression of blood
displacement. When this point occurs, the solution is most
likely traveling deeper and possibly into perforating or
deep veins.
The maximum amount of sclerosing solution that can be
injected into leg telangiectasias is unclear. Although Duffy
placed little emphasis on limiting the amount of solution
injected at a single site, and Lary
of up to 3 mL at a single site when injecting a reticular 3-mm
diameter vein, multiple complications can and do occur from
this technique. Excessive inflammation and inadvertent flow
of the solution into a feeding varicose vein or arteriole can
produce ulceration with injection and damage to the deep
venous system. Thrombosis and emboli can occur when
amounts greater than 1 mL are injected in a single site. For
43
It appears reasonable to inject solution only
44
recommended the injection
21
Injection Technique
321
Chapter
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12
Clinical Methods for Sclerotherapy of Telangiectasias
322
Figure 12.14 Main collector of telangiectatic vessels (small arrow) drains
into the femoral vein (arrow head) through a perforator vein. (Large arrow,
great saphenous vein.)
18:403, 1992.)
(From Bohler-Sommeregger K et al: J Dermatol Surg Oncol
example, injection of 0.5 mL of solution into a 2-mm diameter vessel fills a length of 16 cm (see Chapter 8).
Ouvry and Davy45 recommend that the amount injected
should be sufficient to produce blanching of vessels 1 to 2 cm
around the point of injection. No more than 0.5 mL should
be used to avoid the risk of initiating the formation of new
telangiectasias around the edge of the treated area because of
excessive inflammation. In this regard, the same area should
not be retreated more often than every 4 to 6 weeks. In our
practice it appears that TM occurs more frequently if reinjections are given to a previously treated area that is still undergoing resolution. This unresolved state can be appreciated
clinically by slight inflammation and evidence of microthrombosis of vessels.
In addition to limiting the inflammatory reaction of sclerotherapy treatment, limiting the amount of solution may
prevent pain and cramping when hypertonic solutions are
used. Sadick
17
has found that volumes greater than 0.3 mL of
HS 23.4% caused the most pain and cramping. One way to
minimize the pain from injection of HS is to dilute the HS
with lidocaine to the appropriate concentration. One study
noted a decrease in pain of 30% with use of this dilution
technique.
46
Some areas, especially the ankles, should not be injected
with more than 1 mL of any sclerosing solution. In this area,
the skin is thinnest, the distance between the deep and superficial venous system is the least, and swelling after treatment
is common (see Chapter 8). From a purely legal point of view,
French regulations (dictionnaire Vidal, Vidal Ed. Paris 2009)
recommend not to exceed 10 mL of STS 3%, 2 ampules of
2 mL of POL (any dosage), and 10 mL of CG.
Concentration and strength of
sclerosing solutions
Sclerosing solution concentration and strength are discussed
in detail in Chapter 7, but a few points should be mentioned
here. The most important concept in sclerotherapy is that of
achieving optimal destruction of the blood vessel wall with
the minimum concentration of sclerosing solution necessary;
too much will lead to excessive complications and adverse
sequelae, and too little will lead to ineffective sclerosis or
recurrence from recanalization (see Chapter 8). The physician
should always estimate conservatively when choosing the concentration and type of sclerosing solution.
Three randomized, double-blind, paired comparative
human studies evaluated the results of different sclerosing
solutions and concentrations in the treatment of leg telangiectasia. Carlin and Ratz47 tested POL 0.25%, STS 0.5%, and
HS 20% with heparin, 100 U/mL (Heparsal), in the treatment
of leg telangiectasia. They found that whereas HS and STS gave
quicker clearing of telangiectasia with fewer injections, the
overall level of improvement was identical for all agents.
Polidocanol was the best-tolerated sclerosing solution, with
the smallest number of adverse sequelae. In a follow-up study
comparing POL in four concentrations – 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%,
and 1.0% – Norris et al48 found that all concentrations were
equally effective in treating leg telangiectasia. The POL 0.5%
was ideal, with the least number of adverse effects and the
most rapid clearing in their patients with leg telangiectasias
0.2 to 1.0 mm in diameter. Sadick49 compared HS in
three concentrations – 23.4%, 11.7%, and 5.8% – and found
that HS 11.7% was the minimal concentration of saline that
produced the most effective vein sclerosis of vessels 1.0 mm
in diameter while producing the least discomfort and
morbidity.
A comparison of STS 0.25% and POL 0.5% in treating 61
patients with telangiectasias less than 1 mm in diameter demonstrated a similar degree of vessel disappearance of about
90% with one treatment.
50
This study demonstrated that sclerosing solutions of equal potency act in a similar manner in
treating telangiectasia.
However, some sclerosing agents have a better adverse
sequelae pattern. Although the incidence of TM was similar,
patients treated with STS had an incidence of pigmentation of
63% versus 32% with POL. Thibault
51
found that STS is a
stronger sclerosing agent than has been surmised and used a
0.12% concentration for treating telangiectasias greater than
1 mm in diameter, with a decreased incidence of pigmentation and TM.
Kern et al52 compared the efficacy of CG 100%, POL
0.25% solution, and POL 0.25% foam in the treatment of
leg telangiectasias. A total of 150 patients were randomized
to receive treatment. Foam was created by the Monfreux
technique in a 1 : 4 solution-to-air ratio using glass syringes.
The CG cleared vessels better than POL solution or foam and,
although it was more painful (35/100 vs 20/100), CG did not
cause any episodes of pigmentation or TM. More TM and
pigmentation was produced with POL foam than with POL
solution.
In a study by Leach and Goldman,
53
glycerin 72% mixed
2 : 1 with lidocaine 1% with epinephrine was compared with
STS 0.25% in 13 patients with leg telangiectasia of 0.2 to
0.4 mm in diameter. Patients were evaluated from 2 to 6
months postsclerotherapy for overall clinical improvement
and incidence of adverse sequelae. Glycerin was comparable
to STS in discomfort of injection but demonstrated a significant decrease in bruising, swelling, and postprocedural hyperpigmentation. Glycerin also demonstrated better, more rapid
clearance of treated telangiectasias (Table 12.1).
Munavalli et al54 confirmed the lack of adverse effects and
efficacy of glycerin compared with STS 0.1% foam. Patients
were treated with either glycerin 72% or STS 0.1% foam and
analyzed at 6 weeks. Discomfort was the same with each agent.
Pigmentation occurred in 18 of 20 patients treated with
STS 0.1% foam and in only 1 of 20 patients treated
with glycerin. Telangiectatic matting occurred in 4 of 20 STS
patients versus 1 of 20 glycerin patients. Improvement was
90% for STS and 60% for glycerin. We recommend that leg
Table 12.1 Summary of adverse events and efficacy by treatment group
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Adverse Event/Efficacy Glycerin (n = 13) STS (n =13)
Pain (3) 23% (2) 15%
Bruising (1) 8% (7) 54%
Swelling (0) 0% (3) 23%
Hyperpigmentation (1) 8% (12) 92%
Vessel clearance (7) 54% (1) 8%
Reproduced from Leach B, Goldman MP: Dermatol Surg 29:612, 2003.
telangiectasias less than 1 mm diameter be treated with POL
0.25%–0.5%, STS 0.1%–0.25%, CG, or HS 11.7%. Best efficacy and least adverse effects appear to occur when using
glycerin 72% mixed 2 : 1 with lidocaine 1% with epinephrine.
Pressure of injection
Another variable of technique is the pressure and rapidity of
injection. If leg telangiectasias are injected under excessive
force, they may rupture and result in extravasation of solution
(see Chapter 8). Therefore, injections should be made with
minimum pressure. This may be difficult on injection of sclerosing solutions of high viscosity, such as CG, since more
pressure is required to push them through a 30-gauge needle.
21
Duffy
likens the proper injection pressure to that needed to
fix a postage stamp to an envelope. In addition, the slower the
injection, the longer the solution will be in contact with the
vessel wall. Finally, injection pressure (with equal force
applied to the piston) is inversely proportional to the square
of the piston radius: P = F/S = F/πr
2
; P1/P2 = (r2/r1)2.* If the
approximate piston radius of a 2-mL syringe is 8 mm and that
for a 1-mL syringe is 5 mm, the applied force is 180 mmHg
for a 2-mL syringe and more than 300 mm Hg for a 1-mL
syringe.
In treatment of varicose veins, patient position and movement determine the length of time the solution will be in
contact with the endothelium (see Chapter 9). With the injection of telangiectasias, however, the blood flow is not determined by muscle movement or body position but by many
other factors, including environmental temperature, nervous
stress, and the telangiectasias’ association with arterioles and
underlying veins. Therefore, injections should be made slowly
enough that it takes approximately 5 to 10 seconds to fill the
vessel. Many times the vessel will remain filled with sclerosing
solution if the plunger of the syringe is held with almost zero
force while the needle remains motionless.
Post-Treatment Techniques
Immediately after injection of the sclerosing solution, the
perivascular tissues may swell, producing a clinically visible
occlusion of the vessel, or the vessels may go into spasm. This
usually occurs if the injection is given slowly and if the sclerosing solution is of adequate strength. Indeed, several authors
recommend that a given vessel be treated until such an effect
19
occurs.
centrated solution (125%) into the same vessel during the
same sclerotherapy session.
should be massaged to minimize the stinging and help alleviate the associated muscle cramping by rapidly diluting the
hyperosmotic solution outside of the treated vessel.
*P = Pressure, F = force, S = cross-section of the vein, r = radius.
This may require a second injection of a more con-
After hypertonic solutions are injected, the injected area
21–23,55
The
slower the injection, the less the cramping. When the needle
is withdrawn, a small amount of sclerosing solution may be
deposited under the skin, causing a burning sensation. This
usually occurs only with hypertonic solutions and CG. Massaging for 30 to 60 seconds alleviates the pain and prevents
necrosis from the HS solution.
22
All sclerosing solutions, even unadulterated HS (see Chapter
8), produce some degree of erythema or urtication or both
with injection. Pruritus may be associated with this effect,
especially when associated with urticarial lesions. This probably occurs as a result of histamine release caused by perivascular release of mast-cell mediators because of perivascular
irritation or as a result of intravascular degranulation of
basophils and other white blood cells destroyed by the direct
toxic effects of the sclerosing solution. This reaction and its
associated pruritus can be minimized by the application of a
potent topical corticosteroid cream, thereby providing relief
to the patient, especially if injected areas will be occluded with
compression pads or stockings.
For telangiectasias that do not respond to standard compression sclerotherapy, added vasoconstriction induced by
cold temperature may be helpful. Orbach
respond better to the injection of refrigerated sclerosing solution. Marteau and Marteau,
57
using similar logic, advised
56
found that vessels
applying cold compression pads after injection. Although
these two techniques seem logical, we have not found them
helpful as detergent sclerosants are theoretically more ‘active’
at higher temperatures.
Post-treatment bruising is common and bothersome to
patients, even if its disappearance occurs over a few weeks
without residual discoloration. It may be useful to recommend application of topical creams like Hirucrème (contains
Hirudo medicinalis extract) or Hirudex, which has demonstrated efficacy on mild bruising.
58
In case of local discomfort,
anti-inflammatory nonsteroidal creams can be applied as well.
Post-treatment compression
For many phlebologists, compression of the sclerosed vessel
with a 30- to 40-mmHg graduated compression stocking
should be maintained for a minimum of 24 to 72 hours after
treatment of leg telangiectasias.
serves a number of purposes. First, the pressure helps seal the
irritated vascular lumen. Second, the pressure helps decrease
the likelihood of recanalization of the sclerosed vessel, especially if compression is maintained for 1 to 2 weeks. Third,
the possibility of clinical and symptomatic thrombosis is
minimized, thus minimizing hyperpigmentation, TM, and
recanalization after sclerosis. Although some physicians do
not advocate postsclerosis compression,
sider that its only use is to protect against side effects of an
inappropriate technique,
61
its benefits likely, so its routine use may be recommended.
In addition, most patients actually like the feel of the
compression stocking while they are ambulatory. (A complete
discussion on the use of compression in the treatment of
varicose and telangiectatic leg veins is presented in Chapter 6.)
A second aspect of compression is represented by the local
dressing applied on the injected vein. It usually consists of a
cotton ball or pad and adhesive tape. It exerts double compression: perpendicular (by application of Laplace’s law) and
tangential (by direct traction on the skin on both sides) (Fig.
12.15). This type of compression may be stronger than com-
pression exerted by stockings. How long to keep it in place is
unknown: advice ranges from 1 hour to more than 24 hours.
This type of compression has at least one obvious advantage:
it stops bleeding. Although bleeding is not usually a problem,
especially if feeding reticular veins are treated first, some
patients who have a decreased coagulability may benefit from
local compression.
59
Postsclerosis compression
7,17,22,25,57,60
and con-
the procedure is simple, safe, and
Post-Treatment Techniques
323
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