Совершенствуйте навыки работы с текстом. Готовимся к государственному экзамену. Brush up your text skills. Getting prepared for the state exam. Учебно

less. We have bigger houses and smaller families, more conveniences, but less time. We have more degrees, but less sense, more knowledge, but less judgment, more experts, yet more problems, more medicine, but less wellness.

(Dr. Bob Moorehead, the pastor of Overlake Christian Church in Redmond, Washington)

Cause and effect. Cause-and-effect essays help authors investigate the causes and effects of events. In other words, they explore how and why things happen. While exploring causes and effects of things you ought to define their order very clearly. When you investigate causes, you always deal with events in the past. When you investigate effects, you may deal with events in the past or the future. You may not always be faced with a set of separate causes for a particular effect or separate effects from a particular cause. One cause leads to another, the second to a third, and so on. When writing, you need to set limits on how many of them you can deal with, or nearly every cause-and-effect essay will turn into a history of the world.

Follow-Up

Add more topics to the list of the following suggestions for cause-and-effect essays.

1.Why friendship ends

2.What are the causes and effects of the computer revolution?

3.Why is fast food so popular?

4.How is mood affected by weather?

5.Violence on television programmes

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Division and classification. Studying a complex subject is often best approached by breaking it down into smaller units. In division a subject commonly thought as a single unit is reduced to its separate parts. Do you happen to know into how many federal districts Russia is

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divided? Division is a natural, logical, and necessary form of thought, which is inseparable from classification. In classification we analyze the subject by arranging it into groups or categories rather than separate parts. Without classification certain kinds of systematic thought would be impossible. The pattern of a classification — or division — paper is straightforward and self-evident since each class or division generally represents a major section of the essay; each is defined and described, with as many examples as necessary for clarity. The basic principle to keep in mind here is logical, as only one principle of classification can be used at a time.

Follow-Up

What are the errors in the following classifications outlines? Students

I. Bright

II. Average

III. Hardworking IV. Dull

Teachers

I. Strict II. Friendly III. Lenient IV. Tolerant

The Belles-Lettres Style

I. Prose

II. Poetry

III. Tragedy

IV. Comedy

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Block 7 ‘Stylistic Devices’

This block is devoted to expressive resources of the language; the list of terms of stylistic devices with illustrations is presented in line with their functions and effects achieved.

Language Focus

to use

to make use of to employ

to resort to

Graphics

Changes of the type / font: Capitalization

We went out for dinner one night and he BORED us into the ground, loudly monologuing about other writers and what overpaid, meretricious bastards they were. (M. Keyes)

Italics

Lara stepped closer and said thoughtfully, ‘You know what? Your hair is so great.’

Already I’d started to pick up on LA intonation. Telling someone that something is ‘so great’ is actually a criticism. ‘Your script is so great,’ — but we are not buying it. ‘Your friend that I went on the blind date with is so great,’ — but she bored me to death and I hope I never see her again.

So when Lara told me that my hair was so great, I was pleased for a second, then I wasn’t. (M. Keyes)

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Zero spacing

But even Garv agreed that Elaine was terrifying. Shespokerealfast. Firingquestionsfromamachinemouth. How’swork? Whenareyougettinglisted? Her dynamic glamour reduced me to stammering inadequacy, and by the time I’d cobbled together an answer, she’d have lost interest and moved on. (M. Keyes)

‘IgottaincarstereoanerwalkmansixpairsofCalvinKleinpantsaner RolextypewatchthanksforaskinMissisUnwin,’ as Tom’s friend, the fast-talk- ing but always impeccably polite Leon, had informed her recently. (L. Evans)

Multiplication of graphemes

‘Oh Godddd.’ Eyes half closed, hair randomly flattened, Tom shuffled into the kitchen. ‘Have we got any aspirin?’ (L. Evans)

Hyphenation

‘Architecture-is-the-transformation-of-ideas-into-a-physical-reality. The-complex-and-carefully-designed-structure-of-something-espe- cially-with-regard-to-a-specific-period. To-understand-architecture- we-must-examine-the-relationship-between-technology-science-and- society.’

‘Sir, can you –‘

‘No.’ But he slows slightly. ‘We examine how architecture through the centuries has been shaped by society, how it continues to be shaped, but also how it, in turn, shapes society.’ (C. Ahern)

Functions and effects achieved:

–to draw the reader’s attention to the stressed elements

–to add to the logical or emotive significance of the foregrounded elements

–to convey the intensity of the stress

–to reflect the peculiarities of individual pronunciation

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Language Focus

to highlight to stress

to point out to emphasize to foreground

Graphon

intentional violation of the spelling of the word

1)Beanz Meanz Heinz

2)g2g c u l8er

3)‘Oh, Mus’ Reynolds, Mus’ Reynolds!’ said Hobden, under his breath. ‘If I knowed all was inside your head, I’d know something wuth knowing. Mus’ Dan an’ Miss Una, come along o’me while I lock up my liddle hen-house.’ (R. Kipling)

4)‘I’m back. Feeling better by the minute.’ There was a loud crunching noise. ‘Toasht,’ she explained, her mouth full. (L. Evans)

Functions and effects achieved:

–to make slogans catchy and memorable (1)

–to perform a space-saving function: to save money and to facilitate communication in text messaging (2)

–to individualize the character’s speech and make it plausible in fiction (3)

–to supply additional information about the speaker’s origin, his social status, cultural and educational background

–to signal an uneducated speaker

–to characterize the speaker’s emotional state

–to show the physical defects of the speaker

–to convey the atmosphere of live communication (4)

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Follow-Up

I. Comment on the use of graphics in the following letter-ex- change.

Dear Dad,

$chool i$ really great. I am making lot$ of friend$ and $tudying very hard. With all my $tuff,

I $imply can’t think of anything I need, $o if you would like, you can ju$t $end me a card,

a$ I would love to hear from you. Love,

Your $on.

Dear Son,

I kNOw that astroNOmy, ecoNOmics, and oceaNOgraphy are eNOugh to keep even an hoNOr student busy. Do NOt forget that the pursuit of kNOwledge is a NOble task, and you can never study eNOugh.

Love,

Dad

II. Comment on the use of punctuation marks in the following contexts.

A strand of her sulphur orange hair swerved into a ? on her left shoulder. (M. Pessl)

I’d never been inside a household full of ! and even more !!!I

wasn’t even aware these nests of goodwill, these bubble baths of clasps and cuddles actually existed… (M. Pessl)

III. Identify the graphical devices in the following contexts in line with their functions.

The family wisdom runs strongly against this decision. My mother has said “Ridiculous”, with her certain and forceful stress on the second syllable, “RiDICulous”…(F. Mayes)

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“Oh, pu-leese,” said Jade, rolling her eyes, turning to stare at the freshmen and sophomores standing in line to buy their twodollar hot chocolates. (M. Pessl)

..the haircut drew attention to her smile, did to her smile what Coke-bottle lenses did to eyes, made it huge (pronounced, “HYOOOGE”). (M. Pessl)

IV. What speech defects do you know? Illustrate them using graphics for ‘printing pronunciation’.

Phonetic stylistic devices

Alliteration

Repetition of initial consonant sounds

1)Pride and Prejudice, What Women Want

2)Pink pills for pale people! Taste the tang in tango!

3)As busy as a bee, now or never

4)Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, Rowena Ravenclaw, Salazar Slytherin

Consonance (half-rhyme)

Repetition of middle or final consonant sounds

1)The beast climbed fast to the crest

2)strength-earth-birth

Follow-Up

Underline the alliterative sounds where necessary.

the weary, way-worn wanderer as cool as a cucumber

last but not least fantastic philosophy honoured and humbled

a neat knot needn’t be re-knotted a Canadian child

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Assonance

Repetition of vowel sounds followed by different consonant sounds

1)And the moon rose over an open field

2)on a proud round cloud in white high night

Functions and effects achieved:

–to create euphony: to please the ear

–to link words together

–to emphasize the words

–to make the utterance memorable and catchy

–to create an acoustic image

Onomatopoeia (sound-imitation)

Use of words whose sound fits the meaning

1)Bang, cock-a-doodle-do, cuckoo, rustle

2)Shweppps, Zippo, Kit-Kat

3)Emily marched to the door, all snappy little sounds. The tap-tap of her heels, the crack of her handbag clasp, the click of her lighter, the clack-clack of her nails. I loved it. (M. Keyes)

4)The mosquitoes (zanzare they’re called, just like they sound) invade the hotel with the desert wind. (F. Mayes)

Functions and effects achieved:

–to create a vivid and bright description

– to demonstrate by phonetic means the acoustic picture of reality

–to create an acoustic image

Teaching Tip: Onomatopoeia = Sound-imitation

When analyzing onomatopoeia, answer the following questions: What sound is being imitated? What specific acoustic image is created? What emotional effect might this achieve?

Rhyme

Repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words

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1) dreams — streams, duty — beauty, tenderly — slenderly

Functions and effects achieved:

–to bind lines together

–to establish and emphasize the stanza pattern

–to predetermine the appearance of the next line

Rhythm

Regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables

Metrical feet:

Iamb: enjoy, again, before

Trochee: honey, Sunday, kitten

Dactyl: beautiful, Saturday, gentlemen

Amphibrach: umbrella, continue, revealing

Anapaest: interrupt, understand, disagree

Functions and effects achieved:

–to give balance and structure

–to emphasize the meaning

Follow-Up

I.Match the names of animals with the noises they make.

II.Read this piece of poetry by Walter R. Brooks and recognize the cases of alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme and rhythm.

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Ants, although admirable, are awfully aggravating

The busy ant works hard all day

And never stops to rest or play.

He carries things ten times his size,

And never grumbles, whines or cries.

And even climbing flower stalks,

He always runs, he never walks.

He loves his work, he never tires,

And never puffs, pants or perspires.

Yet though I praise his boundless vim

I am not really fond of him.

III.Comment on the use of the phonetic devices in the following sentences. What image is created by each of the sentences? What emotional effect is achieved in each case?

1)The sea snored and gurgled.

2)The Mediterranean muttered and mumbled.

Lexical stylistic devices

Metaphor

Transference of name based on similarity or likeness of two objects Expressive renaming on the basis of similarity

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