Совершенствуйте навыки работы с текстом. Готовимся к государственному экзамену. Brush up your text skills. Getting prepared for the state exam. Учебно

response. Avoid the most common mistake — never reduce your analysis to calculations of the exact number of stylistic devices used: two epithets, three metaphors, etc. What is much more significant is your interpretation of the effects achieved by the use of these devices, not their exact number. Thus, start with the phrases

The author uses / makes use of / employs / resorts to genuine metaphors.

The text is rich in / full of epithets.

The text abounds in / contains parallel constructions.

The fragment is characterized by the masterly use of imagery. The passage is remarkable for its fine sense of humour. Alliteration is used to advantage / elaborately.

The choice of words is very elaborate / noteworthy. Irony can be felt / found in such epithets as …

The reader is expected to grasp / become aware of / be sensitive to the irony of the dialogue.

The device much favoured by the author is …

! Avoid saying ‘I found a metaphor’, since such a phrase is poor style

And by no means neglect the consequences of the stylistic devices employed / detected / examined:

The author uses hyperboles to achieve / create the ironical effect. Similes are used for the humorous purpose.

Parallel structures maintain / create / generate rhythm. Anaphoric repetition enhances the effect of …

To stress / emphasize /develop this idea, the author uses a prolonged metaphor based on …

Personification makes the description vivid / dynamic / animated / tense/ dramatic.

This simile suggests / implies / illustrates that ….

The metaphor is further developed / evolves into a symbol.

The epithet helps us get a vivid notion / a clear-cut picture of … These stylistic devices contribute to the creation of the atmosphere

of disaster.

Speech characterization plays a very important role in the text as it tells us a lot about the character’s background and social status.

Represented speech reveals / discloses the character’s emotional state.

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The rhythm reinforces the gravity of what is being said and puts great stress / emphasis on the final elements of the sentence.

A good tip may be to start your analysis with graphical and phonetic devices, then to pass on to lexical devices and conclude with the means of expressive syntax — this logical order will help you structure your observations.

Brush up your knowledge of the expressive resources of the language in Block 7 ‘Stylistic Devices’

A Clever Conclusion

After analyzing all the elements of the text mentioned above, its linguistic and stylistic properties in particular, it is only natural to approach such an important parameter as the author’s individual choice and arrangement of words — his or her diction. Consider words and phrases which you find especially well-chosen and effective, explain what they add to the text and how this very choice of words contributes to the tone and atmosphere of the text. Ideally, here you should be able to define the author’s attitude towards the issues brought out in the text and draw conclusions about the author’s individual style. This cannot be separated from the analysis of the impact of the text on the reader, therefore, in the concluding part of your interpretation you can pass on to your own emotional response to the text. It will definitely play into your hands if the text you are analyzing has produced a long and lasting impression on you, you have really enjoyed the writer’s mastery and unique style and would genuinely like to share your observations and impressions with the examiners. But if the text has left you unimpressed, you have all the rights to confess this, just make sure to give well-grounded reasons for your dislike of this particular kind of text and remain objective and unbiased. Some phrases which can help you tackle this issue are the following:

The text is very emotional, which is due to …

Emotionally coloured words and the use of imagery help the author create the joyful and light-hearted atmosphere.

The tense / mysterious atmosphere is created / rendered by / conveyed through the elaborate choice of words.

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On the whole, the tone is serious / sad / light / moving/ sympathetic/ solemn/ tragic / pessimistic.

The text is a chilling description of …

The author’s style can be defined as ironic/ lofty / elaborate. The author does not impose his views on the reader.

The story leaves a long and lasting impression which is due to … The author’s manner / method of depicting events / characters is

straightforward / categorical.

The author is unbiased when presenting ….

The author treats the issue of … in a very subtle way. The author has a sharp eye for details.

More facts and phrases related to the general evaluation of the author’s diction are presented in Block 8 ‘Atmosphere and Style’

And the finale of your analysis should be given to the interrelation between the subject-matter, or central idea of the text — its content, and the chosen linguistic, stylistic and compositional means — the form of the text. Ideally, your final step is to explain the author’s choice of the language and reveal the harmonious unity and balance between the selected forms and the effects achieved. The key words here are appropriateness (of the chosen means on all the levels of the text) and balance (between the form and its content).

Hopefully, the text you are dealing with will really appeal to you and you will find the process of its interpretation rewarding and enjoyable, which, in its turn, will be appreciated by the examiners. The best of luck!

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Block 1 ‘Fiction vs. Non-fiction’

As scholars have not worked out an all-embracing definition of text yet, sure enough, when it comes to the classification and typology of texts, there are no universal approaches. (If you feel interested in the definition of the unique phenomenon of ‘text’, address ‘Supplement: Part 3’). At the same time most linguists agree on at least one fundamental division of texts which is based on their communicative and pragmatic factors. According to these parameters, all texts are subdivided into fiction and non-fiction, or imaginative vs. informative. Roughly speaking, it means that all texts can be divided into two groups — those written for utilitarian purposes and those written for aesthetic purposes. Informative or intellectual texts (non-fiction) are characterized by their appeal to the intellect, their content is expressed clearly and directly, the personality of the author is not strongly felt. To this group belong scientific texts and news reports, legal documents and business correspondence. They are contrasted with poetry and emotive prose — fiction — which appeals not only to our mind, but to our soul as well, as imaginative writing does not only provide us with food for thought, it is aimed to stir feelings, arouse emotions and stretch imagination.

Compare and contrast the following contexts:

Example 1. “Typical sharks are generally bluish or greyish in colour; the body is of the normal fish shape, the snout pointed, the crescentic mouth placed on the underside of the head”.

(Encyclopedia Britannica)

Example 2. “His back was as blue as a swordfish’s, and his belly was silver and his side was smooth and handsome”. (E. Hemingway “The Old Man and the Sea”)

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Although the subject-matter of these two fragments is the same — the description of the shark — the difference in presenting the material is obvious.

The basic function of Fragment 1 is the informative function, or the function of the message (функция сообщения), while Fragment 2 is based on the function of the aesthetic impact (функция воздействия). Consequently, we can characterize the text of Fragment 1 as a piece of objective writing that is predetermined by the very essence of the encyclopedia entry, which is to inform the readers and provide them with objective information. The context sounds precise and matter-of-fact; its language is unemotional and devoid of individuality, or impersonal. The main communicative aim of this short text affects the choice of the language means: the fragment represents a lengthy complex sentence where all the words are used in their logical meanings.

The pragmatic essence of Fragment 1 is clearly contrasted with the artistic appeal of Fragment 2, which represents the subjective description of the shark. The context produces a powerful emotional effect thanks to the elaborate choice of stylistic devices including alliteration of the sounds [b] and [s] and syntactical parallelism, which generates a strong rhythmical effect. Personification coupled with epithets (silver, smooth, handsome) and a comparison conveys the individual attitude of the author to the shark evoking the feelings of awe and admiration. This context illustrates the indispensable features of emotive prose — a literary work invented by the imagination, fictional by definition. Depicting imaginary reality, it represents the artistic model of the world; as a result, a literary text creates new artistic impressions and offers a plurality of interpretations.

Follow-Up

I. Compare and contrast the following extracts. Which fragment represents a piece of fiction? Which one is a piece of non-fiction? Prove your point and characterize each fragment with at least three adjectives in terms of their tone and diction.

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Fragment 1

“What’s them plants, ma’am?”

The irritation and resistance melted from Elisa’s face. “Oh, those are chrysanthemums, giant whites and yellows. I raise them every year, bigger than anybody around here.”

“Kind of a long-stemmed flower? Looks like a quick puff of colored smoke?” he asked.

“That’s it. What a nice way to describe them.”

“They smell kind of nasty till you get used to them,” he said. “It’s a good bitter smell,” she retorted, “not nasty at all.”

He changed his tone quickly. “I like the smell myself.”

“I had ten-inch blooms this year,” she said. (J. Steinbeck “The Chrysanthemums”)

Fragment 2

Any of the ornamental plants that make up the genus Chrysanthemum in the composite family. The genus includes about 100 species native primarily to subtropical and temperate areas of the Old World. Cultivated species, often called mums, have large flower heads; those of wild species are much smaller. Most species have aromatic, alternate leaves. Some have both disk and ray flowers in the heads; others lack ray flowers. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

On the contrary, Fragment 2 produces an impression of being

________________

________________

________________

II. Check yourself and insert the necessary words:

….. and ….. are broad categories used mainly by writers, publishers, literary critics and librarians. ….. corresponds to «художественная проза» and is used to describe literary works invented by the imagination; whereas ….. stands for «документальная, научная литература» and denotes books based on factual material.

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III.Place the following types of books under the appropriate heading: war novel, adventure novel, crime story, biography, travel book, manual, fairy tale, thriller, book on the arts history, English textbook. Add at least two examples of your own.

Language Focus

imagery vs. imaginary imaginary vs. imaginative

Guess the definition:

1.not real, fictional

2.the use of words or pictures to describe ideas or actions in poems, books, films

3.creative, containing new and interesting ideas

Fill in the gaps:

1.The novel is set in the …. Russian town of Zavolzhsk.

2.Advertisers use … to appeal to our emotions. 3. He offered an …solution to a long-standing problem.

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Block 2 ‘Theme and Topic.

Meaning and Message’

Since at the exam you will never have to deal with a complete piece of fiction, it means that you won’t be able to identify its message which the author communicates to us, readers. The message of the text is usually understood as its central idea, or supporting ideas, representing generalization about life implied or stated in the text. Basically, when you try to single out the meaning of some work, you have to answer the question ‘What made the author put his pen to paper?’; which consequently can lead us to such questions as ‘What food for thought does he / she give? What ideas does he / she try to convey? What facts does he / she share with us?’ At the same time it is safe to remember that the purpose of some stories is simply to produce a certain emotional response. Their authors try to communicate the ‘feel’ of particular experience and elicit an emotional, rather than intellectual understanding of their prose. A good example is a typical adventure story, which is highly unlikely to teach us a lesson and moralize, as we are supposed simply to enjoy the action when we read it.

It is more or less easy to single out the theme of a work of nonfiction, but when it comes to fiction the notion of theme becomes elusive. It is more abstract and general than the subject-matter of some fragment which can be roughly defined as the substance of the text, the examples of which you can find in the Follow-up.

The theme is a vitally important element because it gives works meaning, making them relevant. The theme of a fable is its moral; the theme of a parable is its teaching, and the theme of a piece of fiction is its view about life and human experience. This idea may be a general truth about life or an exploration of a special way of look-

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ing at life. The theme of a work is a complete idea, thus, it should be expressed in a complete sentence. The theme lies at the very centre of writing and ties all its aspects together to express the author’s insight.

A story has a stated theme when its author expresses the work’s main idea directly. For example, Dorothy’s statement in The Wizard of Oz that “there’s no place like home” plainly tells us the theme of the book: Everything we might want can be found “at home” — within ourselves.

But we rarely find a direct statement of theme in a story, thus, it is up to the reader to collect and combine all his / her observations and finally try to formulate the central idea illustrated by the story. What is important is not the formulation of some brief idea like “love makes blind” or “crime doesn’t pay”, although the latter can be very tempting, especially when you are discussing the story where bad guys lose and good guys win.

An interesting example of theme recognition process is presented in the book “Writing Essays about Literature” by Kelley Griffith, where the author claims that a work’s theme must be applicable to people outside the work. She illustrates her idea on the material of the short story Rip Van Winkle declaring that to say that the theme of “Rip Van Winkle” is “Rapid change in his environment threatens Rip’s identity” is incorrect since in this form this statement includes only the characters in the story, but not people in general. Thus, a correctly stated theme for Rip Van Winkle may sound as follows: “Rapid change in environment causes many people to feel their identity is threatened.” Readers, when identifying it, move from concrete situations within a literary text to generalizations about people outside the work, and only in this case literature becomes a form of philosophy, offering universal wisdom about the nature of reality.

For Text Appreciation the process of collecting and combining all the impressions, reflecting on them and finally incorporating the reading experience into one’s own experience of life is much more important than just dissecting the story into its elements. Again it must be stressed that the consideration of theme, meaning and message can be relevant only with reference to a complete piece of literary work. Only in this case the idea which dominates the whole work and recurs at certain intervals turns into its theme, becoming the main insight about human experience which an author expresses in his / her work.

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If you find it difficult to formulate a theme, consider the following questions:

—What ideas about life does the title of a literary work suggest?

—Has the protagonist learned anything? Has he or she acquired a greater knowledge or insight or reached a new awareness?

—Were there any striking repetitions of actions, words, thoughts or symbols?

—What do particular events and conflicts reveal about life in gen-

eral?

—What might these particular characters with these personality traits tell us about people in general?

—Did the author probably want to say something about life in general or to present a certain kind of person and view of life?

—What view of the world does the author offer us?

Follow-Up

I. Since your primary goal right now is to polish your skill of summarizing contents, it makes sense to revise the basic rules of summarymaking. In order to summarize effectively, you should be able to fully understand the text, to know the main points from the minor points or supporting detail, and to express the contents in good English.

Now consider the following statements and mark them True or False.

1.Summary is a representation of the contents of written works.

2.A good summary should cover every detail of the text.

3.Avoid using personal pronouns like he, she, they.

4.Introduce your own judgment and comments.

5.Use verbs like tell, ask, answer which are typical of reported speech.

6.Be concise: a summary should not be equal in length to the original text. Add your own rules of summary-writing and discuss them in class.

1.

2.

3.

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