Изъявительное наклонение в английском языке. Учебно-методическое пособие в модульной технологии направление 44.03.05 (050100) «Педагогическое образова
.pdfSemantic classes of adverbial modifiers
The adverbial of place
This adverbial expresses:
a)Place proper.
John was born in Australia, but lives in England.
b)Direction or destination.
He moved to Australia in 1975.
c)Distance.
He lives far from his parents.
The identifying questions are where? for place proper, where to? where from? – for direction, where? how far? – for distance.
The adverbial of time
The adverbial of time has four variations:
a)The adverbial of time proper denotes the time of some event.
We shall meet tomorrow.
b)The adverbial of frequency indicates how often the event denoted by the predicate takes place.
It is mostly placed before the notional part of the predicate (if it is expressed by an adverb). I am always careful.
Adverbials of frequency are expressed by adverbs and adverbial phrases.
c)The adverbial of duration indicates the period of time during which some event takes place. They are often expressed by prepositional phrases with prepositions for, during, since, till, until. The preposition since denotes the starting point and the preposition till/until – the final point of some period.
Have you been there long? – A couple of hours.
d)The adverbial of time relationship presents the idea of time as related to some other event in time.
This adverbial is expressed by such adverbs as still, yet, already, at last, before, after, by a noun, a gerund, or a prepositional phrase with the prepositions by, before, after.
It was still raining implies that it had been raining for some time before.
Here are some other examples of adverbial of time relationship:
Promise to come back by the end of the week.
The adverbial of manner
The adverbial of manner characterizes the action of the verb by indicating the way it is performed or by what means it is achieved. The identifying questions are how? in what way? by what means?
Adverbials of manner are mainly expressed by adverbs or prepositional phrases (including gerundial phrases) introduced by the prepositions with, without, by, by means of, or with the help of, the latter three suggesting means.
Hooper danced badly, but energetically.
Adverbials of manner may also be expressed by participial phrases and absolute constructions.
I looked up again and saw that coming from the door behind Palmer, she had entered the room. The identifying questions are either How did he open the tin? or What did he open the tin with?
The adverbial of cause (reason)
The identifying questions, of this adverbial are why? for what reason? because of what? due to what? Adverbials of reason are expressed by prepositional nominal phrases, participial and infinitive phrases, sometimes by absolute constructions.
You mean you‘ve failed because of me?
A number of polysemantic prepositions acquire causal meaning when combined with nouns denoting a psychological or physical state.
She couldn‘t speak for happiness (anger, fear, joy).
Participial phrases and nominative absolute constructions are freely used as adverbials of reason, most often with the verb to be and verbs of feeling, wish, or mental perception.
I was happy just being with him.
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The adverbial of purpose
This adverbial answers the identifying questions what for? or what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or complex.
Jane has come to help us.
The adverbial of purpose may also be expressed by a noun, a prepositional phrase, nominal or gerundial, introduced by the preposition for.
We reserved this table for lunch.
After the imperative of the verbs to go and to come another imperative is preferable to the infinitive,
as in:
Go and help him. (Not Go to help him.)
The adverbial of result
It has no identifying questions. It refers to an adjective, a noun with qualitative meaning, or an adverb accompanied by an adverb of degree, such as too, enough, sufficiently, so... (as). The adverbial of result is expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase, or complex.
It is too cold to go out.
The adverbial of degree
It too signals a negative result, enough suggests the necessary amount of quality to perform the action. The correlative phrase so... as implies a realized action, unlike the phrase so as before adverbials of purpose suggesting a hypothetical event. Compare these sentences:
John was so fortunate as to get the first prize (and he got it) – result.
John trained hours so as to get the first prize for boating (we do not know whether he has got it or not) – purpose.
The adverbial of condition
The identifying questions are in what case? or on what condition? The adverbial of condition is generally expressed by a noun or a pronoun, or by a prepositional phrase (nominal or sometimes gerundial) with the prepositions but for, except for, without.
But for you I wouldn‘t be here at all.
This adverbial is sometimes expressed by a participle or an adjective with the conjunctions if or unless.
Jane won‘t sing unless asked to.
Less frequently it is an infinitive or a participle.
I would have done better to have followed my first thought.
The adverbial of concession
This adverbial expresses some idea that contradicts what is stated in the modified part of the sentence. Thus in its meaning it is opposite to the adverbial of reason. The identifying question is in spite of what?
The adverbial of concession is expressed by a prepositional phrase introduced by in spite of, despite, for all, with all and phrases introduced by the conjunction though.
In spite of his anger John listened to me attentively.
Adverbials of attendant circumstances and subsequent events
These adverbials have no identifying questions. The adverbial of attendant circumstances expresses some fact that accompanies the event presented by the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial may be expressed by a gerundial phrase, a participial phrase, any kind of absolute construction, and rather rarely by an infinitive phrase.
We walked three miles without meeting anyone (and did not meet anyone).
The adverbial of subsequent events points out an event following the event presented in the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, or sometimes by a participle.
He woke up to see that it was daylight.
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The adverbial of comparison
This adverbial is introduced by the conjunctions than, as, as if, as though or the preposition like. The adverbial with than is preceded by the comparative of the adverb or the adjective it modifies, the adverbial with as – by the correlative adverbs as or so:
A mountain is higher than a hill.
The difference between the use of like and as is important.
Ann talked to us like a teacher means that Ann is not a teacher. The conjunctions as if and as though give the comparison a modal shade of meaning: They precede a participle, an infinitive, or a prepositional phrase, as in:
As if obeying him, I turned and stared into his face.
The adverbial of degree
This adverbial modifies various parts of the sentence expressed by verbs, adjectives, adverbs and statives, characterizing actions, states and quality from the viewpoint of their intensity. The identifying questions being how much? to what extent?
Adverbials of degree are expressed mainly by adverbs and by prepositional phrases with the preposition to. The story is extremely long.
The adverbial of measure
This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure (length, time, weight, money, temperature).
It is used after statal verbs denoting processes, states, or characteristics allowing measurement, such as to measure, to last, to wait, to sleep, to walk, to run, to weigh, to cost.
The room measures 30 feet across.
The adverbial of exception
This adverbial is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of.
I looked everywhere except in the bedroom.
The prepositions save and save for are more formal and occur in writing, as in: These men were in fact quite civil save during certain weeks of autumn and winter.
[Кобрина, Н.А., Корнеева, Е.А., Оссовская, М.И., Гузеева, К.А.
Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис [Электронный ресурс]. –
Режим доступа : http://www.studfiles.ru/preview/3915065/]
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APPENDIX 7
Inversion
Standard word order in English declarative sentences is first the subject, then the verb. For example: Lena went to the park yesterday.
Changing standard word order is called «inversion» (inverted word order; inverse word order). Inversion in English usually refers to placing the auxiliary, modal, or main verb before the subject. Inversion is used with a certain aim, often for emphasis. For example:
Never before have I seen such beauty.
It is advisable for language learners to avoid using most of the emphatic inverted constructions described below. It is necessary to understand inversion, but it is better to use standard, ordinary word order in your own speech and writing.
Cases of inversion that you really need to use in your speech include questions, the construction «there is, there are», sentences beginning with «here» or «there», and responses like «So do I; Neither do I». Examples of other inverted constructions are given here in two variants for comparison of inverted and standard word order.
Note:
The words «standard word order; normal word order; ordinary word order» (that is, first the subject, then the verb) do not mean that inverted word order (that is, first the verb, then the subject) is incorrect or abnormal.
Standard word order and inverted word order have different uses. For example, inverted word order is necessary in questions, which means that inverted word order is normal word order for questions.
Note that English inversion may not always be reflected in Russian translation.
Typical cases of inversion
Inversion in questions
The most common type of inversion in English consists in moving the auxiliary verb into the position before the subject. This type of inversion is most often used in questions. For example:
Did Lena go to the park yesterday?
(For more examples of questions, see Word Order in Questions in the section Grammar.)
Construction «there is, there are»
Inversion is required in the construction «there is, there are» and in cases where a modal verb or a main verb is used in such constructions.
There are several books on the table.
Inversion after «here» and «there»
Inversion takes place in sentences beginning with the adverb «here» or «there». Some phrases beginning with «here» or «there» have idiomatic character.
Here is the book you asked for.
If the subject of the sentence beginning with «here» or «there» is expressed by a personal pronoun, the verb is placed after the subject.
Here it is. Here you are. Here you go.
Constructions with «so» and «neither»
Inversion is required in responses like «So do I» and «Neither do I». (See So do I. Neither do I. in the section Phrases.)
I like coffee. – So do I.
Inversion is also required in compound sentences with such constructions. I like coffee, and so does Ella.
Conditional sentences
Inversion is required in the subordinate clause of conditional sentences in which the subordinating conjunction «if» is omitted. If the conjunction «if» is used, inversion is not used. Compare these conditional sentences in which inverted word order and standard word order are used.
Should my son call, ask him to wait for me at home. – If my son should call, ask him to wait for me at home. If my son calls, ask him to wait for me at home.
Were I not so tired, I would go there with you. – If I weren't so tired, I would go there with you. Had I known it, I would have helped him. – If I had known it, I would have helped him.
(See Conditional Sentences, the part «Absence of IF», in the section Grammar.)
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Inversion after direct speech
Inversion takes place in constructions with verbs like «said, asked, replied» placed after direct speech. «I'll help you», said Anton.
«What's the problem?» asked the driver. «I lost my purse», replied the woman.
But if the subject of such constructions is expressed by a personal pronoun, the verb is placed after the subject.
«Thank you for your help», she said. «Don't mention it», he answered.
If verbs like «said, asked, replied» are used in compound tense forms, or if there is a direct object after «ask», inversion is not used. For example: «I'll help you», Anton will say. «What's the problem?» the driver asked her.
Standard word order is also used in constructions with verbs like «said, asked, replied» placed after direct speech, especially in American English. For example: «I'll help you», Anton said. «What's the problem?» the driver asked.
If verbs like «said, asked, replied» stand before direct speech, inversion is not used: Nina said, «Let's go home».
Inversion in exclamatory sentences
Inversion is sometimes used for emphasis in exclamatory sentences. Compare inverted and standard word order in the following exclamatory sentences.
Oh my, am I hungry! – I'm so hungry! Oh boy, was she mad! – She was so mad!
Have we got a surprise for you! – We've got a surprise for you! May all your wishes come true!
How beautiful are these roses! – How beautiful these roses are!
Inversion depending on the beginning of the sentence
The following cases of inversion occur when some parts of the sentence, for example, the adverbial
modifier of place or direction, come at the beginning of the sentence. Inversion in such cases consists in moving the auxiliary verb, and in some cases the main verb (i.e., the whole tense form), into the position
before the subject.
Such types of inversion are used for emphasis, mostly in literary works. It is advisable for language
learners to use standard word order in such cases. The examples below are given in pairs: Inverted word order – Standard word order.
Inversion after «so», «such», «as»
So unhappy did the boy look that we gave him all the sweets that we had. – The boy looked so un-
happy that we gave him all the sweets that we had.
Such was her disappointment that she started to cry. – Her disappointment was so strong that she started to cry.
Owls live in tree hollows, as do squirrels. – Owls and squirrels live in tree hollows. As was the custom, three fighters and three shooters were chosen.
Inversion after adjectives and participles
Gone are the days when he was young and full of energy. – The days when he was young and full
of energy are gone.
Blessed are the pure in heart.
Beautiful was her singing. – Her singing was beautiful.
Inversion after adverbial modifiers of place
Right in front of him stood a huge two-headed dragon. – A huge two-headed dragon stood right in front of him.
In the middle of the road was sitting a strange old man dressed in black. – A strange old man dressed in black was sitting in the middle of the road.
Behind the mountain lay the most beautiful valley that he had ever seen. – The most beautiful valley that he had ever seen lay behind the mountain.
Inversion after postpositions
The doors opened, and out ran several people. – Several people ran out when the doors opened. Up went hundreds of toy balloons. – Hundreds of toy balloons went up.
But if the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, the verb stands after the subject. Are you ready? Off we go!
Out he ran. – He ran out.
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Note: Direct object at the beginning of the sentence
Direct object is sometimes placed at the beginning of the sentence for emphasis. In such cases, the subject usually stands after the object, and the predicate follows the subject; that is, inverted word order is generally not used if the object is moved. Compare:
That we don't know. – We don't know that.
Inversion in negative constructions
Inversion is required in negative sentences beginning with the following negative adverbs and adverbial phrases: never; never before; not only...but also; not until; no sooner; at no time; on no account; under no circumstances.
Inversion also takes place in sentences beginning with the following adverbs and adverbial phrases used in a negative sense: rarely; seldom; hardly; scarcely; little; only when; only after; only then.
Inverted negative constructions are used for emphasis, mostly in formal writing and in literary
works.
If you don't need or don't want to use emphatic inverted negative constructions, don't put the abovementioned expressions at the beginning of the sentence.
Compare the following examples of inverted and standard word order in sentences with such negative constructions. The first sentence in each group has inverted order of words.
Examples:
Never before have I felt such fear. – I have never felt such fear before.
Never in his life had he seen a more repulsive creature. – He had never in his life seen a more repulsive creature.
Not only did he spill coffee everywhere, but he also broke my favorite vase. – He not only spilled coffee everywhere but also broke my favorite vase.
Not only was the princess strikingly beautiful, but she was also extremely intelligent. – The princess was not only strikingly beautiful but also extremely intelligent.
Not until much later did I understand the significance of that event. – I understood the significance of that event much later.
No sooner had she put down the phone than it started to ring again. – As soon as she put down the phone, it started to ring again. The phone started to ring again as soon as she put down the receiver.
At no time should you let him out of your sight. – You should not let him out of your sight at any time. Don't let him out of your sight even for a second.
Under no circumstances can she be held responsible for his actions. – She cannot be held responsible for his actions.
Rarely have I seen such a magnificent view. – I have rarely seen such a magnificent view.
Seldom do we realize what our actions might lead to. – We seldom realize what our actions might
lead to.
Little did he know what his fate had in store for him. – He did not know what his fate had in store for him.
Hardly had I stepped into the house when the light went out. – I had hardly stepped into the house when the light went out.
Scarcely had he said it when the magician appeared. – He had scarcely said it when the magician ap-
peared.
Only when I arrived at the hotel did I notice that my travel bag was missing. – I noticed that my travel bag was missing only when I arrived at the hotel.
Инверсия
Стандартный порядок слов в английских повествовательных предложениях – сначала подлежащее, затем глагол. (См. Basic Word Order в разделе Grammar.) Например:
Лена ходила в парк вчера.
Изменение стандартного порядка слов называется «инверсия» (обратный порядок слов). Инверсия в английском языке обычно имеет в виду помещение вспомогательного, модального или основного глагола перед подлежащим. Инверсия используется с определённой целью, часто для эмфатического усиления. Например:
Никогда раньше не видел я такой красоты.
Изучающим язык целесообразно избегать употребления большинства описанных ниже эмфатических конструкций с обратным порядком слов. Необходимо понимать инверсию, но в своей устной и письменной речи лучше употреблять стандартный, обычный порядок слов.
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Случаи инверсии, которые вам действительно нужно употреблять в своей речи, включают вопросы, конструкцию «there is, there are», предложения, начинающиеся с «here» или «there», и фра- зы-отклики типа «So do I; Neither do I». Примеры других конструкций с обратным порядком слов даются здесь в двух вариантах для сравнения обратного и стандартного порядка слов.
Примечание:
Слова «стандартный порядок слов; нормальный порядок слов; обычный порядок слов» (то есть, сначала подлежащее, затем глагол) не значат, что обратный порядок слов (то есть, сначала глагол, затем подлежащее) является неправильным или ненормальным.
Стандартный порядок слов и обратный порядок слов имеют разное применение. Например, обратный порядок слов необходим в вопросах, что значит, что обратный порядок слов – это нормальный порядок слов для вопросов.
Обратите внимание, что английская инверсия не всегда может быть отражена в русском пере-
воде.
Типичные случаи инверсии
Инверсия в вопросах
Наиболее распространённый тип инверсии в английском языке заключается в перемещении вспомогательного глагола в положение перед подлежащим. Этот тип инверсии чаще всего используется в вопросах. Например:
Лена ходила в парк вчера?
(Ещё примеры вопросов можно посмотреть в статье Word Order in Questions в разделе
Grammar.)
Конструкция «there is, there are»
Инверсия требуется в конструкции «there is, there are», а также в случаях, где модальный глагол или основной глагол употреблён в таких конструкциях.
На столе несколько книг.
Инверсия после «here» и «there»
Инверсия имеет место в предложениях, начинающихся с наречия «here» или «there». Некоторые фразы, начинающиеся с «here» или «there», имеют идиоматический характер.
Вот книга, которую вы просили.
Если подлежащее предложения, начинающегося с «here» или «there», выражено личным местоимением, глагол ставится после подлежащего.
Вот оно. / Вот. / Вот, возьмите.
Конструкции с «so» и «neither»
Обратный порядок слов требуется во фразах-откликах типа «So do I» и «Neither do I». (См. So do I. Neither do I. в разделе Phrases.)
Я люблю кофе. – Я тоже.
Инверсия также требуется в сложносочинённых предложениях с такими конструкциями. Я люблю кофе, и Элла тоже (любит).
Условные предложения
Инверсия требуется в придаточном предложении условных предложений, в которых опущен подчинительный союз «if». Если союз «if» употреблён, инверсия не используется. Сравните эти условные предложения, в которых употреблены обратный порядок слов и стандартный порядок слов.
В случае, если позвонит мой сын, попросите его подождать меня дома. – Если позвонит мой сын, попросите его подождать меня дома. Если позвонит мой сын, попросите его подождать меня дома.
Будь я не таким уставшим, я пошёл бы туда с вами. – Если бы я не был таким уставшим, я пошёл бы туда с вами.
Знай я это (раньше), я бы помог ему. – Если бы я знал это (раньше), я бы помог ему. (См. Conditional Sentences, часть Absence of IF, в разделе Grammar.)
Инверсия после прямой речи
Инверсия имеет место в конструкциях с глаголами типа «said, asked, replied», стоящими после прямой речи.
«Я помогу вам», – сказал Антон.
«В чём проблема?» – спросил водитель.
«Я потеряла кошелёк», – ответила женщина.
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Но если подлежащее таких конструкций выражено личным местоимением, глагол ставится после подлежащего.
«Спасибо за вашу помощь», – сказала она. «Не стоит благодарности», – ответил он.
Если глаголы типа «said, asked, replied» употреблены в сложных формах времён, или если прямое дополнение стоит после «ask», инверсия не используется. Например: «I'll help you», Anton will say. «What's the problem?» the driver asked her.
Стандартный порядок слов тоже употребляется в конструкциях с глаголами типа «said, asked, replied», стоящими после прямой речи, особенно в американском английском. Например: «I'll help you», Anton said. «What's the problem?» the driver asked.
Если глаголы типа «said, asked, replied» стоят перед прямой речью, инверсия не используется: Nina said, «Let's go home».
Инверсия в восклицательных предложениях
Инверсия иногда используется для усиления в восклицательных предложениях. Сравните обратный и прямой порядок слов в следующих восклицательных предложениях.
Ну и голоден же я! – Я такой голодный!
Ну и разозлилась же она! – Она так разозлилась!
А какой у нас сюрприз для вас! – У нас есть сюрприз для вас! Пусть сбудутся все ваши желания!
Как красивы эти розы! – Как красивы эти розы!
Инверсия, зависящая от начала предложения
Следующие случаи инверсии возникают, когда некоторые части предложения, например, обстоятельство места или направления, идут в начале предложения. Инверсия в таких случаях заключается в перемещении вспомогательного глагола, а в некоторых случаях основного глагола (т.е. всей формы времени), в положение перед подлежащим.
Такие типы инверсии используются для эмфатического усиления, в основном в литературных произведениях. Изучающим язык желательно употребить прямой порядок слов в таких случаях. Примеры ниже даны в парах: Обратный порядок слов – Прямой порядок слов.
Инверсия после «so», «such», «as»
Таким несчастным выглядел мальчик, что мы дали ему все конфеты, которые у нас были. – Мальчик выглядел таким несчастным, что мы дали ему все конфеты, которые у нас были.
Таким было её разочарование, что она начала плакать. – Её разочарование было таким сильным, что она начала плакать.
Совы живут в дуплах деревьев, как и белки. – Совы и белки живут в дуплах деревьев. Как следовало по обычаю, были избраны три бойца и три стрелка.
Инверсия после прилагательных и причастий
Ушли те дни, когда он был молод и полон энергии. – Те дни, когда он был молод и полон энергии, ушли.
Благословенны чистые сердцем.
Прекрасным было её пение.– Её пение было прекрасным.
Инверсия после обстоятельств места
Прямо перед ним стоял громадный двухголовый дракон. – Громадный двухголовый дракон стоял прямо перед ним.
Посередине дороги сидел странный старик, одетый в чёрное. – Странный старик, одетый в чёрное, сидел посередине дороги.
Позади горы лежала самая красивая долина, которую он когда-либо видел. – Самая красивая долина, которую он когда-либо видел, лежала позади горы.
Инверсия после послелогов
Двери открылись, и наружу выбежали несколько человек. – Несколько человек выбежали наружу, когда двери открылись.
Вверх полетели сотни детских воздушных шаров. – Сотни детских воздушных шаров полетели вверх.
Но если подлежащее выражено личным местоимением, глагол стоит после подлежащего. Вы готовы? Уходим! (выходим; отъезжаем)
Наружу он выбежал. – Он выбежал наружу.
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Примечание: Прямое дополнение в начале предложения
Прямое дополнение иногда ставится в начале предложения для усиления. В таких случаях, подлежащее обычно стоит за дополнением, а сказуемое следует за подлежащим; то есть, обратный порядок слов обычно не используется, если передвигается дополнение. Сравните:
Этого мы не знаем. – Мы не знаем этого.
Инверсия в отрицательных конструкциях
Инверсия требуется в отрицательных предложениях, начинающихся со следующих отрица-
тельных наречий и наречных сочетаний: never; never before; not only...but also; not until; no sooner; at no time; on no account; under no circumstances.
Инверсия также имеет место в предложениях, начинающихся со следующих наречий и наречных сочетаний, употребляемых в отрицательном смысле: rarely; seldom; hardly; scarcely; little; only when; only after; only then.
Отрицательные конструкции с обратным порядком слов используются для эмфатического усиления, в основном в официальной письменной речи и в литературных произведениях.
Если вам не нужно или вы не хотите употреблять эмфатические отрицательные конструкции с обратным порядком слов, не ставьте вышеуказанные выражения в начале предложения.
Сравните следующие примеры обратного и стандартного порядка слов в предложениях с такими отрицательными конструкциями. Первое предложение в каждой группе имеет обратный порядок слов.
Примеры:
Никогда раньше я не испытывал такой страх. – Я никогда не испытывал такой страх раньше. Никогда в жизни он не видел более отвратительного создания. – Он никогда в жизни не видел
более отвратительного создания.
Он не только везде пролил кофе, но он также разбил мою любимую вазу. – Он не только везде пролил кофе, но также разбил мою любимую вазу.
Принцесса была не только поразительно красива, но она была также чрезвычайно умна. – Принцесса была не только поразительно красива, но и чрезвычайно умна.
Только гораздо позже я понял значение / значительность того события. – Я понял значение того события гораздо позже.
Не успела она положить / Едва / Как только она положила трубку, телефон зазвонил снова. – Как только она положила трубку, телефон зазвонил снова. Телефон зазвонил снова, как только она положила трубку.
Никогда вам нельзя выпускать его из поля зрения. – Вам не следует никогда выпускать его из поля зрения. Не выпускайте его из поля зрения ни на секунду.
Ни при каких обстоятельствах она не может считаться ответственной за его действия. – Её нельзя считать ответственной за его действия.
Редко приходилось мне видеть такой великолепный вид. – Я редко видел такой великолепный
вид.
Редко мы осознаём, к чему могут привести наши действия. – Мы редко осознаём, к чему могут привести наши действия.
Он и представить не мог, что ему приготовила судьба. – Он не знал, что ему приготовила
судьба.
Не успел я войти / Едва я вошёл в дом, как свет погас. – Я едва вошёл в дом, как свет погас. Едва он сказал это, как появился волшебник. – Он едва успел сказать это, как появился вол-
шебник.
Только когда я прибыл в гостиницу, я заметил, что пропала моя дорожная сумка. – Я заметил, что пропала моя дорожная сумка, только когда я прибыл в гостиницу.
[Кобрина, Н.А., Корнеева, Е.А., Оссовская, М.И., Гузеева, К.А.
Грамматика английского языка: Морфология. Синтаксис [Электронный ресурс]. –
Режим доступа : http://www.studfiles.ru/preview/3915065/]
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APPENDIX 8
WORD ORDER
The words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order, which is fixed for every type of the sentence, and is therefore meaningful. We find several principles determining word order in a sentence, so that word order fulfils several functions – grammatical, emphatic, or communicative, and linking.
The grammatical function of word order
The main function of word order is to express grammatical relations and determine the grammatical status of a word by fixing its position in the sentence. There exist two ways of arranging words – direct word order and inverted word order.
Direct word order
The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is Subject – Predicate – (Object), which is called direct word order. Direct word order is also employed in pronominal questions to the subject or to its attribute.
Direct word order allows of only few variations in the fixed pattern, and then only for the secondary parts. Thus if there are two objects, the indirect one precedes the direct one, or the prepositional follows the direct one.
The birds have come.
As to other secondary parts of the sentence, such as attributes and adverbial modifiers, their position is less fixed.
Adverbials and different form words seem to be the most movable parts in the sentence. Their mobility is partly accounted for by their varied reference to different parts of the sentence.
The place of adverbials
When referring to a verb adverbials may be placed in:
1.Front position.
Again he was late.
2.Contact preposition.
He often said it. He occasionally sees them.
3. Interposition between the elements of a composite verbal part.
He has never seen her.
The latter position is occupied mainly by adverbs of indefinite time and degree: already, always, sometimes, often, hardly, still, just.
Adverbials may sometimes separate the particle to from the infinitive. This construction is called the split infinitive.
I don‘t expect you to thoroughly understand it.
4.Contact post-position.
They are never on time.
5.End position.
Are you married yet?
Positions 1, 4 and 5 are usually occupied by adverbials of place, time (definite time adverbs) and attendant circumstances.
He left the stage amid thunderous applause.
When adverbials refer to adjectives, adverbs, nouns, numerals, or pronouns they are usually placed close to these words, generally preceding them.
He is quite a hero.
For adverbials allowing of different reference (to a verb, to an adjective, etc.) any change of position may result in a change of meaning. Compare the following sentences:
Nearly all died. (They died with few exceptions.)
Inverted word order
Another common pattern of word order is the inverted one (or inversion). We distinguish full inversion (when the predicate precedes the subject, as in Here comes the lady of the house) and partial inversion (when only part of the predicate precedes the subject, as in Happy may you be!).
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