Дискурсивно-стилистический анализ английской письменной научной речи. Учебное пособие

only the native speaker would slow down a little, you would be able to divide that blur of sound into individual words. The physical reality of speech is that for the most part the signal is continuous, with no breaks at all between the words.

Exercise 27. Read the paragraph. Analyze the means of cohesion. Fill in the table.

One of the earliest applications of the concept of register to translation was provided by House, who demonstrated its use in assessing the quality of a translation.Although the model she uses is slightly different from the one outlined above, it covers all the same parameters and adds to it the concept of “social role relationship” (1977 :45) which, in addition to the equality-power dimension, also includes the related concept of positional role versus situational role. Our positional role, what we do in life, will affect the way we use language. House quotes such “high-status” examples as teacher or priest, but people such as plumbers and carpenters will also use language dictated by their position in life, and that language will include variations depending on whether the addressee is the customer, the supplier or the apprentice.

51

Transitional words

Transitions refer to the resources for linking clauses and sentences in a discourse. Coordination and subordination are the two major ways in which sentences can be combined. Coordinators and subordinators can be divided into several groups based on the logical relationships they indicate.

1. Addition words indicate 1) more information (in addition, also, moreover, furthermore, similarly, likewise, as well as) 2) surprising or unexpected information (in fact, indeed, besides) 3) a general or specific statement about the previous sentence (in general, in particular, to be specific).

2. Explanation words indicate that the idea in the first sentence is defined or made clearer in the second sentence (in other words, that is, i.e., to be precise, meaning that).

3. Condition words indicate that the second sentence will or will not occur if the fist sentence is true (in that case, otherwise, if, if not, unless, provided, as long as, in case of).

4. Listing words indicate a series of words or sentences that support a point or give examples (first, second, first; moreover; furthermore; finally; for example; for instance, such as).

5. Alternative words indicate that the idea in the first sentence can be replaces by the idea in the second (on the other hand, alternatively).

6. Summation words indicate that the last sentence summarizes the ideas in the previous sentence (in conclusion, in summary, in brief, to conclude, to summarize, to be brief, in short).

7.Transition words indicate that a new aspect of the topic will be discussed (in regard to, in reference to, with respect to).

8.Contrast words indicate that the second idea is in direct con-

trast to the first sentence (in contrast, by comparison, conversely, on the other hand, whereas, while, in contrast to, compared to).

9. Concession words indicate that the second sentence contrasts with the first, but that this information is surprising or unexpected (however, nevertheless, nonetheless, still, in spite of that, despite the fact that, although, even though, even if).

52

10. Reservation words indicate that the first sentence may not be completely accurate, but that the second sentence at least is true (at least, certainly, that is to say).

11. Rebuttal words indicate that the first sentence is not true or correct opinion, but that the second sentence is true or correct (in fact, as a matter of fact, actually, instead).

12.Cause words show why something occurs or exists (because, since, as, inasmuch as, due to the fact that, owing to, due to).

13.Effect words show the result of the previous sentence (there-

fore, consequently, as a result, thus, accordingly, as a consequence, for this reason, so ... that, such ... that).

14.Purpose words indicate the possibility of a result (for this purpose, for this reason, so that).

15.Sequence words show that the event in the second sentence

took place before or after the event in the first sentence (before, formerly, until. After, afterwards, later, subsequently, then, eventually).

16. Simultaneity words indicate that the event in the first sentence took place at the same time as the event in the second sentence (at this time, at the same time, simultaneously, when, while, as).

Transitional sentences may belong to the groups of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, adverbs or phrases. The most common transitions are summarized in the table.

53

Exercise 28. Read the text. Find transition words. Analyze the logical relations they express. Find other means of lexical and grammatical cohesion.

How many words do we know? As it turns out, this is not an easy question to answer. We all have the intuition that our vocabulary cannot be too enormous since we don't remember having to learn a lot of words. Yet when we think about it, we realize that the world around us appears to be infinite in scope. How do we use a finite vocabulary to deal with the potentially infinite number of situations we encounter in the world? We will learn that the number of sentences at our disposal is infinite. Our vocabulary also has an open-endedness that contributes to our creative use of language. So again, how many words do we know? According to Pinker, children just entering school “command 13,000 words... A typical high-school graduate knows about 60,000 words; a literate adult, perhaps twice that number”. This number (120,000) may appear to be large, but think, for example, of all the people and all the places (streets, cities, countries, etc.) you can name. These names

54

are all words you know. In sum, anyone who has mastered a language has mastered an astonishingly long list of facts encoded in the form of words. The list of words for any language (though not a complete list, as we will see) is referred to as its lexicon.

Exercise 29. Choose the most appropriate transitional word.

Dreams play a key role in our lives. (1) (a) Also, they (b) They also (c) They reveal important patterns in the way our brains work.

(2) (a) Therefore it is (b) It is thus (c) Itis important to understand how they are created, how they relate to each other and what their effects on our waking lives are. This work presents the design, realization and validation of a new paradigm to effectively teach dream mechanics in secondary schools. (3) (a) In particular the (b) Specifically, the (c)The project was devised in close collaboration with high school teachers and offered to 180 students. The guiding principle was that classes should have a relevant laboratory component, where students could have an active role with hands-on training. (4) (a) At the same time, students (b) In fact, students (c) Students would have the means to learn the mathematical tools and the underlying physical models, used to describe experiments, analyze data and discuss the results.

(5) (a) Last, but not least, teachers (b) Lastly teachers (c) Teachers should be able to motivate students to study dream mechanics, by highlighting its connections to everyday life and to other disciplines such as anthropology, philosophy and medicine. (6) (a) Bearing in mind all these objectives, we (b) We thus (c) We formulated the following learning program based on lectures, seminars, experiments, data analysis and discussion of the results. The workshops were held in the classroom, and the theoretical framework and software tools were introduced. We started with the study of nightmares using an EMR device. (7) (a) In addition practical (b) Furthermore practical

(c) Practical examples of nightmare mechanics were investigated both with a brain scan and a SOGNO circuit. (8)(a) In actual fact we (b) In detail we (c) We investigated dream mechanics in different cultures:

(9) (a) specifically, Australian (b) namely, Australian (c) Australian aborigines, the Italian mafia and Japanese industrialists. (10)(a) Finally,

55

the (b) In summary the (c) The interaction of dream scenarios with everyday reality was investigated.

Exercise 30. Complete the sentences with appropriate transitional words.

1.Writings on the subject of translating go back in recorded history. The practice of translation was discussed by, __________, Cicero and St. Jerome. In St. Jerome’s case, his approach to translating the Greek Bible into Latin would affect later translations.

________, the translation of the Bible was to be the battleground of conflicting ideologies. __________ the practice of translating is long established, the study of the field developed into an academic discipline only in the 20th century. _________, translation had been merely an element of language learning. _________, from the late 18th century to the 1960s, language learning had come to be dominated by the grammar-translation method.

2.Contrastive analysis heavily influenced translation research.

_________, it does not incorporate sociocultural and pragmatic factors, nor the role of translation as a communicative act. _________, the continued application of a linguistic approach has demonstrated an inherent link with translation.

3.There are at least two reasons why this definition is inadequate.

______, it does not distinguish between words and phrases or sentences, which are also (derivatively) arbitrary pairings of sound and meaning. ________, a word such as it in a sentence such as It is snowing has no meaning. The word is simply a placeholder for the subject position of the sentence.________ not all sound sequences are words, ____ not all sound sequences that native speakers would identify as words have a meaning. We have intuitions about what is and is not a word in our native language, ________ as yet we do not have an adequate definition for the term word.

Exercise 31. Delete unnecessary transitional words.

It is worthwhile noting that the length of a sentence should generally not exceed about 35 words. In fact, any sentence presents readers with the task of first identifying its constituent phrases,

56

and then, as a consequence, bearing them all in mind while their logical interrelation crystallizes. In addition, forcing readers to bear in mind and fit together more than about 10 phrases (each of about three words) is unnecessarily cruel. Moreover, as far as writing is concerned, your English instructor’s joy at your ability to compose grammatically correct 200-word sentences must be disregarded as against your present goal of simplifying your reader’s job. Of course, it goes without saying that an equally important rule is that a sentence should generally contain some indication as to how it is related to the preceding sentence or to the development of the paragraph.

Punctuation

Transitional adverbs and phrases can connect two independent clauses. In this case they are separated with a semicolon or a comma.

In warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly (the fist independent clause); therefore, the concentration of salt is greater (the second independent clause).

Coordinators can join words or phrases in a clause or two independent clauses. In the first case, they are not separated; in the second case they are separated with a comma.

Children not only need love, but they also need discipline. (compound sentence)

Children need not only love but also discipline. (simple sentence)

Subordinators connect a depend clause to an independent clause. The general rule is this: Put a comma after a dependent clause but not in front of one.

Although the company's sales increased last year, its net profit declined.

The company's net profit declined last year although its sales increased.

The following rules will help you to punctuate sentences correctly. 1. Do not separate with a comma (commas) identifying clauses.

A machine which is used to record seismic waves is a seismometer.

57

An online dictionary is useful for a student who needs to quickly check the meaning of unfamiliar words.

2. Separate with a comma (commas) non-identifying clauses.

Dr. John Harris, who came on a research visit to our University, gave an interesting lecture on the issues of sustainable development.

3. Do not separate with a comma infinitival, participial, prepositional phrases, and adverbial clauses if they come at the end of the sentence.

You need the right kinds of food in the right amounts to have a healthy life.

The dominant culture sets the standards and norms for day-to-day living in many countries around the world.

4. Separate with a comma infinitival, participial, prepositional phrases, and adverbial clauses if they come at the beginning of the sentence.

To have a healthy life, you need the right kinds of food in the right amounts.

In many countries around the world, the dominant culture sets the standards and norms for day-to-day living.

5. Put a comma between two independent clauses if they are connected by and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.

Lomonosov worked in many fields of science, but everywhere he brought something new and original leaving his century far behind.

6. Do not put a comma before or after coordinating conjunctions (such as and, but, or, nor, for, yet) that join two verbs in the same clause.

He returned to the laboratory and started the experiment again.

7. Separate with a comma logical connectors at the beginning of the sentence.

However, real language does not consist solely of questions from one party and answers from another.

58

8. Put a comma before the last item in a series of three or more words even if this item is preceded by and.

Pollutants may be chemicals, industrial waste, and small particles of soil.

9. Put a comma in a direct quotation to separate the speaker's exact words from the rest of the sentence.

To quote Richard-Amato, games “add diversion to the regular classroom activities”, break the ice, “but also they are used to introduce new ideas”.

Exercise 32. Punctuate the text.

The field of linguistics the scientific study of human natural language is a growing and exciting area of study with an important impact on fields as diverse as education anthropology sociology language teaching cognitive psychology philosophy computer science neuroscience and artificial intelligence among others. Indeed the last five fields cited along with linguistics are the key components of the field of cognitive science the study of the structure and functioning of human cognitive processes. In spite of the importance of the field of linguistics many people even highly educated people will tell you that they have only a vague idea of what the field is about. Some believe that a linguist is a person who speaks several languages fluently. Others believe that linguists are language experts who can help you decide whether it is better to say “It is I” or “It’s me”. Yet it is quite possible to be a professional linguist (and an excellent one at that) without having taught a single language class without having interpreted at the UN and without speaking any more than one language.

Exercise 33. Writing task. Write a paragraph discussing one of the following:

a)Define a basic concept from your field of study;

b)Present the aim of your research work;

c)Present briefly a seminal work (a monograph or a paper) in your field of study.

59

Exercise34.Proofreadyourparagraph.Usethefollowingchecklist.

Evaluating a paragraph

I.Topic Sentence

1.Does the topic sentence begin the paragraph?

2.Has the topic or subject been narrowed or limited?

3.Does the topic sentence express an opinion or idea about the

topic?

II.Support

1.Are specific and concrete details used for support?

2.Is the support too general or vague?

3.Which of the following types of support are used:

•Short examples?

•Extended examples?

•Explanations?

•Statistics?

•Statements by authorities? (quotes and paraphrases)

•Descriptions?

III.Unity

1.Whichsupportingsentencesdirectlyrelatetotheideaexpressed in the topic sentence?

2.Which supporting sentences do not directly support the idea expressed in the topic sentence?

IV. Coherence

1.Is there a logical order to the support?

2.Is repetition used to keep the reader focused?

3.Is the support relationship to the main idea sufficiently explained?

•Using: Synonyms referring to key words;

•Pronouns referring to key words;

•Repeating actual key words or ideas;

4.Is the paragraph consistent in:

•Person? (1st, 2nd or 3rd)

•Number? (singular, plural)

•Tense? (Present, Past, etc.)

60