Psychology of Buddhism. Monograph

the emotional and sexual body (pranamaya kosha), mind (manomaya kosha) and the highest, fine intellect (vijnanamaya kosha). The causal body is anandamaya kosha, the archetypal spirit, which is said to be for the most part hidden or formless. The three basic dimensions of existence are said to correspond to the three states of consciousness: the state of wakefulness, the state of dreaming and the state of deep sleep. There is also the Absolute Spirit, which is sometimes referred to as “Turiya” (“the Fourth”), as it transcends and integrates the three basic states of consciousness, the gross, the fine and the causal state.

We have already discussed the psychological model of Mahayana Buddhism, which includes eight “vijnanas”, eight levels of consciousness. The first five of them correspond to the five senses. Then comes “manovijnana”, the mind, which controls sensory experience. The next level is “manas”, which creates the illusion of self-identity. It is manas which makes us regard “alayavijnana” (the next level of superindividual consciousness) as an individual self or a substantial soul. The source and the base of the eight levels is “alaya”

(the pure Spirit). The ninth consciousness is also called the spotless mind, the uncreated, initial wisdom, the absolute reality, the Buddha nature, the buddhahood, the dharmakaya, the lokuttara consciousness, the transcedental consciousness, the noble mind (arya-citta), the one free from kama, rupa and arupa spheres of desires.

In Buddhism, like in many other spiritual traditions, the path of self-improvement (sadhana) is represented by an hierarchy of mental states, at the top of which there are states that help to attain the absolute integrity.

Each next step implies a higher level of integrity and expansion of identity: from isolated identity of sensory experience consciousnesses, through social identity of manavijnana, to the highest level of identity of alaya-vijnana. The final stage is characterized by identification with all aspects of multi-dimensional reality, jnana (awareness that is free from conceptual encumbrances) and nirvanic experience.

There is an inextricable connection between the steps of the path. Personal growth and transformation accompany one’s movement up the hierarchy of states, leading to the initial wisdom, which is beyond suffering, births and desires.

It is climbing the “stairs” of the mind – kama-consciousness (the sensual consciousness characteristic of the sphere of desire, kama vara citta, inherent in all living

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beings), rupa-consciousness (characteristic of the form realm, rupa vara citta) and arupaconsciousness (the formless realm – apura vara citta).

The form realm (rupa-dhatu) includes four stages of concentration (dhyana). Here the priority is given to the group of sensations, or feelings.

The next three stages of concentration (samapatti) are called arupa-dhatu (the formless realm). Here the most important function is performed by the group of perception or cognition (samjna-skandha).

Rupa, the sphere of “form” or “matter” is intermediate between two other spheres, as it has something in common with each of them: it has the same figurativeness as the sphere of sensation, and the same abstract character as the formless realm, which is manifested in withdrawal from the underlying sphere of sensations with its desires and attachment. It is not an artificial abstraction, which is proved by the intuitive character of the two spheres. The properties of each of them are not something additional to their specific characteristics, they represent their modification. Thus, the world of sensations is the sphere of sensual desires, its objects are limited, its “Self” is conditioned and opposed to the subject, they lack unity with it and thus create a state of tension (dualism), which we call passion, desire, thirst. The objects belonging to the formless realm do not have limits, they are extremely complicated and diverse. Therefore, there is no tension, desire and thirst. And it is so in the world of pure forms, too.

There are five important mental factors in the sphere of pure forms (rupa dhatu): 1) initial thinking (vitakka), the action of taking care of an object, attention; 2) consideration, examination (vicara) 3) absorption, rapture, inspiration (piti) 4) bliss, or pleasure (sukha) 5) one-pointedness or unification (ekaggata). The last mental factor is inherent in any act of consciousness, but it is especially significant during meditation. These factors make it possible to eliminate the five hindrances (nivaranani), which stifle worldly thinking:

-initial thinking eliminates sloth and stupor (thina-middha);

-consideration (or examination) eliminates skeptical doubt (vicikicha);

-absorption (or rapture) eliminates anger or ill will (doga or byapada);

-bliss (pleasure) eliminates restlessness and remorse (uddhaccakukucca);

-one-pointedness eliminates greed, craving, desire (lobha).

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When one enters the realm of pure form, vitakka, vicara, piti, sukha and ekaggata eliminate the above described hindrances (replacing them with the opposite favorable factors). Further meditation leads to elimination of vitakka, vicara, piti and sukha, which are

“absorbed” by increasing concentration (ekaggata).

In the formless realm (arupa vara citta) consciousness corresponds to the fifth state of the Pure Form (the fifth jhana). Therefore, we cannot use the concept of mental factors for drawing up the classification of consciousnesses in the formless realm. Instead, objects of consciousness (arammana) are used for this purpose.

In the formless realm (arupaloka citta) consciousness goes through four successive stages of meditation:

-meditation on the sphere of infinite space (akasanacayatana).

-the sphere of infinite consciousness (vinnancayatana).

-the sphere of nothingness of consciousness (akincannayatana).

-the sphere of extremely subtle cognition (nevasannanasannayatana).

It is important that mental factors gradually disappear, as you move on to the higher levels of meditation. The mind undergoes transformation, from its everyday state to the state of one-pointedness. Consciousness fluctuates between the extremities of Differentiation and Uniformity (the Universal Unity). According to the Buddhist point of view, Uniformity is the initial, critically important state of mind, whereas superficial, everyday consciousness is defined as resisting, creating obstacles in the flow of life.

“Superficial consciousnesses” are the most differentiated ones. The mind becomes more and more unified and less differentiated with the deepening of concentration. Finally, it approaches the state of “fundamental consciousness”, the pure light of consciousness, the untainted mind. The amplitude of fluctuation between the superficial and deeper levels of consciousness is determined by the intensity of awareness.

The concept of ego is the product of superficial consciousness, as ego exists when there is differentiation. The opposite of ego is non-ego. The closer one’s mind gets to its basis, the less powerful the idea of “self” becomes. The meditator realizes that his ego is an illusion.

We have discussed various versions of the play of consciousness with several types

of consciousness differentiation. It is evident that all stages of concentration are equally

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important. However, you are probably more interested in the two highest forms, “the pure consciousness” (alaya vijnana) and the “untainted mind”. The seven others are easier to understand, as they have analogues in European psychology.

“Alaya-vijnana” literally means “store-house consciousness”. It is a passive streamlike “sheath” or “reservoir” of consciousness, where “bijas” (“seeds”) are kept. The seeds are informational units (similar to the concept of “engram” in neuropsychology), which are kept in alaya vijnana since the beginning of time and added in the process of acquiring mental experience. Everything that we perceive and experience gets into the “store-house consciousness” and is kept there in the form of “seeds” of experience. At some point, which is determined by karma, the “seeds” begin to “sprout”, urged by their inner power (indriya).

(71)

On the one hand, seeds are passive elements of alaya vijnana, on the other hand, they represent potential of diverse activity.

Alaya vijnana can be defined as a folded information vacuum, which manifests its void nature (sunyata) in the passive state of inactivity. And at the same time, it keeps the entire evolutionary experience of man, the memory of thousands and thousands of births.

Thus, we can consider alaya vijnana as an evolutionary memory, a system of sets, which “works” every time we find ourselves in some life situation. The “seeds” (bija) become active, they sprout and form a whole “tree of life”, sometimes turning either into destiny or into a stage of life.

Then the experience that one has had introjects into alaya vijnana, new seeds are added to the “store-house consciousness”, and the process repeats.

Bija has the potential for any reaction to situational stimuli. This potentiality is manifested in “vasanas” (impressions remaining in the mind; habit, inclination, tendency to behave in a particular way, to have particular emotional reactions, world model and system of categories; predisposition to a particular way of thinking). Thus, alaya vijnana includes not only seeds as potentiality of reactions, but also vasana (tendency or tension) which helps to project the “seeds” to the outer world and strength (indriya) which provides the possibility to “unpack” it.

The last stage of concentration involves struggle with the nature of consciousness.

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Owing to the existence of vasanas, consciousness is predetermined to objectify and construct the world with the desire to possess it and enjoy it, to exist and to feel (71).

Deep concentration can suppress the intention of bija. However, “seeds” remain in a personality in a latent form, as potentialities. Bijas can manifest themselves later, under favorable conditions, when one has left the state of concentration.

In order to achieve the state of pure consciousness, alaya vijnana has to become transparent. In other words, the practicing bhikkhu has to sacrifice his ego, to kill his egoism, and his behavior will cease to be controlled by desires and selfish interests.

It is impossible to achieve liberation from samsaric existence and suffering without complete transformation of the nature of consciousness.

This transformation of consciousness (its “reorientation” from the outside to the inside, to itself) is called “overturning of the very basis of consciousness” (ashraya paravritti).

There are three basic strategies aiming at attaining Buddhahood:

1. Breaking the connection between alaya vijnana and its seven sources (seven types of consciousness). Activation of bijas is always connected with life conditions.

Breaking the connection leads to elimination of conditions of “growing”, as the result of which vasana ceases to manifest itself. This can be done with the help of classical relaxation (withdrawal from the world of phenomena) and partial or complete social and sensory isolation (breaking connections with the world). The “outer silence”, which is an integral part of these practices, can lead to the “inner silence”, the silence of samadhi.

2. Purification of consciousness. The second strategy concerns the content of alaya vijnana, which has to be purified so that it reaches the state of “untainted mind”. Buddhist tradition describes this strategy as “pouring seeds out of the bag”. The metaphor is quite exact; however, the practice itself (the “pouring out”) seems to be mysterious and vague. Bijas contain global information, which is unpacked only together with perception of reality, interaction with the seven sources. But detecting bijas leads only to formation of new bijas, i.e. increase of its content. Therefore, concentration has to be so deep and the light of consciousness so pure, that one could detect and “pour out” even the dust of bijas.

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3. Suppressing vasanas. It is possible to curb the vasanas’ tendency to project the content of alaya vijnana to the outside if one masters the sublime attitude of Equanimity

(upekkha). It means eliminating desires and suppressing bijas’ impulses.

Basic Generalizations

Thus, there are three strategies of “overturning of the very basis of consciousness”

(reorientation of alaya vijnana towards the inner self). It is an initiation into pure consciousness, devoid of duality, dichotomy, the subject/object binary and reality differentiation.

Alaya vijnana turns into a pure mirror-like wisdom (jnana), the untainted mind. It is even cannot be called consciousness any more. It is characterized by Permanence (nitya), Bliss (sukha), Selfness (atman) and Purity (subha). These attributes are opposite to the fundamental qualities of samsara: impermanence (anitya), suffering (dukkha), not-self (anatman or annata) and impurity (asubha). Nirvana is generally associated with continuous consciousness, eternal awareness and spiritual purity.

In my opinion, it is not quite right to say that at the highest point of concentration one’s mind becomes free from worldly desires and identifications. Nirvana is not consciousness, it is neither pure nor desire-free: it is beyond duality and therefore cannot be described at all.

This is the end of the path to nirvana.

I would not describe nirvana as the “fruit of sadhana”.

A fruit is something that we reap and eat, or store in order to plant.

It is the death of Ego, it is being in an indescribable, inexpressible state.

The questions “who, where and when” are inappropriate here.

It is incorrect to say that consciousness is in nirvana, as there is no consciousness at

all.

It is incorrect to call it a bliss, as there is no duality and therefore no suffering.

We even cannot call it “incorrect” as there is not mind at all.

It is an inexpressible emptiness, and that’s all.

But what shall we do with this emptiness?

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You cannot describe it, but you can experience it. I am not sure that you can live out of this emptiness.

The next page of this book is going to be blank, so that before you turn to the next chapter, which is devoted to Buddhist practices, you could think about the ultimate indefiniteness of “the ninth”.

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Chapter 3

SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND TRANSFORMATION

This chapter will teach you how to put the theory described above into practice.

The methods and practices we are going to discuss are intended for European readers. More precisely, for those who are not devoid of European egocentrism.

We should make it clear that these methods and practices are not at all aimed at destruction of personal constructs, “erasing personal history” or passing into nirvana.

They can help you to get to know yourself better, to develop will power and ability to control your emotions and to cultivate the sublime feelings (kindness, openness, compassion, love for one’s neighbor, humanism). They aim at development of selfawareness, attention, inner peace and harmony at the deepest level.

The primary purpose of Buddhist practices is to cultivate inner peace, self-awareness and the ability to keep oneself aloof from one’s thoughts, emotions and desires.

It does not mean that Buddha celebrated bodilessness. He discovered the “Middle Path” and in his first sermon at Benares he said: “Neither abstinence from fish and flesh, nor going naked, nor shaving the head, nor wearing matted hair, nor dressing in a rough garment, nor covering oneself with dirt, nor sacrificing to Agni, will cleanse a man who is not free from delusions”.

One does not have to accomplish ascetic feats to achieve inner harmony. One has to realize and accept the “thusness” (Tathata) of inner and outer reality, thus overcoming “clinging”, or “attachment” (Upadana). The Middle Path urges to avoid the extremes – attachment to sensual objects on the one hand, and self-destruction on the other hand.

Buddhism is a philosophy with “open eyes”, a spiritual path of the “awakened state”, a path of conscious self transformation.

This chapter is devoted to Buddhist practices “outside the monastery”. Buddha himself said that the monastery was inside us: “The bliss of truth-seeking life is attainable for anyone who follows the path of unselfishness...It is not life and wealth and power that enslave people, but the clinging to life and wealth and power” (Majjhima Nikaya).

Buddhist psychology not only developed its own concept of personality, but also

devised a way to liberate people from suffering.

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The wide range of Buddhist practices aim at formation of high ethics. Bhikkhu’s personality manifests fundamental existential values, he is the guardian of human spirituality. At a certain stage of his spiritual development, bhikkhu cultivates the Four Sublime Attitudes: Loving-kindness, Compassion, Joy and Equanimity. The four immeasurables are the greatest social achievement of Buddhist sadhana, the major fruit of Buddhist spiritual path, which is of great significance not only for the sangha, but for human society as a whole: it is a model of humaneness and a manifestation of human potential.

Now let us analyze the possibility to achieve nirvana.

3.1. Individual Approach and the Fruit of the Path

Before we embark on the path of Sadhana, or even resolve to practice Buddhism in a primitive way, we have to think about the aims we are going to pursue. Is it possible that Buddhist practices become just another useless pastime, like watching soap operas and

“reality” shows television? Maybe all we want is to please our Ego with telling somebody that we practiced vipassana meditation at the retreat of Sri Srimad Hell Knows Who and were initiated by the great teacher O. Dahldahl....

In previous chapters we discussed the complexity of Buddhist world view, concepts, philosophy, ethics, ontology and psychology.

The individuality of Buddhist psychology lies beyond the borders of anthropocentrism, its individual character is manifested in the multiplicity of alaya vijnanas: not only every human being, but every living being is endowed with subject-object duality

(grahaka and grahya) and has his “own” alaya vijnana.

Every living creature (a fly, a cat or any John Smith) experiences his own world, different from the worlds of other beings.

The character of alaya vijnana, as well as the body structure of every living being depends on the world (“loka”) the creature belongs to. There are six basic domains, or worlds for every type of living entities (asuras, humans, animals, pretas, etc.)

The complexity of body organization and the way the creature perceives the world is determined by karma. There are worlds of ants, worlds of rabbits, worlds or elephants, etc.

They all exist as objectifying realities, according to their ways of structuring their existence.

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The worlds we experience are the “worlds of people”. The difference between individual ways of perception is determined by peculiarities of individual karma.

We perceive the world in a different way; however, there is some initial agreement on what reality is like.

“Vijnaptimatra siddhi sastra” tells us: like the light from many lamps in one room forms general light, worlds of various creatures form a single coherent reality.

The coherence between the worlds is caused by correlation between karmas of living

beings.

These karmic correlations result in linguistic, cultural, educational and ethnic social communities.

Our place in society is determined by our level of consciousness, which is influenced by karma. The world inside us is the one we deserve, and the world we live in is also predetermined by our actions.

However, the existence of different levels of consciousness makes the possibility of understanding Buddhist texts and practices by some beings questionable. Certain living beings are not able to cultivate the sublime attitudes, not to speak of attaining samadhi and nirvana.

We cannot but agree with the point of view of the classical Yogacara (“Yogacara bhumi sastra”). This doctrine states that all people are divided into five classes (“gotras”), according to their ability to embark and move on the path of sadhana. There are “sravakas” (“hearers”, or “disciples”), who are not able to become Buddhas or Bodhisattvas, their “upper limit” is laymanhood. And there are those who are incapable of becoming upasakas and follow the five percepts.

Some believe that there is only one gotra – Tathagata Gotra, “the Buddha family”, which includes all living beings without exception. And although we cannot but admire the democratic character of this doctrine, we still believe that it is wishful thinking.

Even Buddha became sadly convinced that people were not equal in the ability to attain awakening.

The idea of Tathagata Gotra, i.e. equal potential to become a Buddha, is expressed in the concept “Tathagata-garbha” (“embryonic Buddha”).

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