Psychology of Buddhism. Monograph

The image of a Christmas tree in the conceptual consciousness of memory, the image of Vladimir Kozlov with butterfly wings in the erroneous conceptual consciousness, the image of my cat in the unerring visual perception, etc. – all of them are distinctly present in these consciousnesses. Moreover, each consciousness is aware of the images which appear in it.

The definition “clarity and awareness” is right not only for the ordinary dualistic mind, but also for the enlightened mind of Buddha, as well as for the refined non-dualistic consciousness, characteristic of all living beings. In Tantra, it is described as “bright light”, emphasizing the aspect of clarity, or as “awareness” or “self-aware consciousness”, which stresses the aspect of awareness.

Thus, consciousness can be divided into many categories: conceptual and nonconceptual (according to its object); erroneous and non-erroneous (according to its nature); eye consciousness, ear consciousness, etc. (according to its basis); main and derivative (according to its function), etc. But from the point of view of the subject, i.e. the consciousness itself, all types of consciousness correspond only to self-awareness. The ability of consciousness to cognize itself is of primary importance in Buddhist logic and Buddhist theory of knowledge. Any concept, any logical construction ultimately comes to direct perception. And any direct perception has to realize itself in order to become conceptually realized.

But realization of one thought requires another thought, while realization of that another thought requires, in turn, one more thought, which has to be realized by some other thought, and so on. The only solution here would be realization of the whole chain of thoughts. But the chain would have to be realized by another infinite chain of thoughts, and thus to infinity of infinities. So, we have to admit that consciousness realizes itself...

Buddhism provides us with a particularly complex cartography of states of consciousness. While studying this system, we have to remember that it is characterized by a deeply psychological understanding of reality. The term “psycho-cosmos” seems to be more appropriate when speaking about states of consciousness in Buddhism.

In Buddhism, there are several classifications of consciousness. For the most part, they consist of similar elements, but have different basis.

101

All Buddhist schools recognize the division of consciousnesses into main types of consciousness and secondary types of consciousness. The first group corresponds to simple perception of particular objects, while the second group refers to various mental processes which accompany perception. For example, visual perception of an object is said to be main consciousness, and recognition of its features – secondary consciousness.

Main types of Consciousness

All Buddhist schools single out six classes of consciousness, which correspond to the six objects of sense perception:

-Eye consciousness (cakkhu vijnana).

-Ear consciousness (sota vijnana).

-Nose consciousness (ghana vijnana).

-Mouth consciousness (jihva vijnana).

-Body consciousness (kaya vijnana).

-Mind consciousness (mano vijnana).

The five sensory organs are said to be a subtle invisible matter, placed inside eyes, ears, nose, on the particular part of the tongue and covering the entire surface of the body. The sixth organ, the mental one, is non-material. It is represented by the previous moment of consciousness, which caused the appearance of the present one. In fact, the word “organ” or “faculty” is not the most accurate translation of the Sanskrit word “indriya”. It would be more correct to interpret it as “strength”. In Buddhism, indriyas denote strength and ability of eyes, ears, nose, tongue and body to evoke the corresponding types of consciousnesses.

Many Buddhist schools also single out the seventh and the eighth type of main consciousness – manas and alaya-vijnyana.

Manas is called the “craving mind”, or the “profane mind”, because it forms the part of personality, which is erroneously regarded as one’s own ego. Manas creates the illusion of individuality, distinct from other individualities and the outside world. It makes people feel concerned about the outside world and forms the feeling of autonomy and self-identity: “this is me, and those are other people”, “this is me, and that is the outside world”, “this is mine, and that is not mine”. It serves as the source of egocentrism and leads to the feeling of

attachment, craving and rejection.

102

Manas brings sensory information and all forms of mental activity into a single whole, which is called “personality”.

However, manas does not represent the fundamental, basic consciousness, as it also has something that it perceives as Atman, the simple, eternal substantial “Self”, or soul. This

“something” is the eighth consciousness - alaya-vijnana (literally, “store of consciousness”).

Alaya-vijnana is considered to be the fundamental consciousness (mula-vijnana). It is the source of all other forms of consciousness (i.e. the sevenfold empirical consciousness described above). To be more precise, alaya-vijnana undergoes transformation and turns into other forms of consciousness (parinama).

In spite of the fact that manas considers alaya vijnana to be an eternal soul, alayavijnana belongs to the sphere of reality, and not to the sphere of the absolute. It is a continuum, which means that it has a flow-like character. Alaya-vijnana and other types of consciousness that are based on it, are impermanent, momentary (anitya) and selfless (annata).

In Buddhist teaching, there are an infinite number of alaya-vijnanas: every living being has its “own” alaya-vijnana. And every alaya-vijnana is characterized by subjectobject differentiation. Buddha himself spoke about the “individual stream of consciousness of living beings”.

Some Buddhist schools also single out the ninth form of consciousness: the spotless mind, meaning the uncreated, initial wisdom.

At the same time, some Buddhists do not regard it as consciousness at all. They see it as the initial wisdom, which is distinct from consciousness. Consciousness includes relative aspects and images (for not only the image of an apple in direct visual perception, but also the concept of the absolute truth is relative truth), while the initial wisdom is free from such relative aspects.

However, only the one who comprehends the absolute truth has the initial, uncreated wisdom. Only the awakened one can rationalize the concept of the spotless mind.

Thus, only the enlightened people have the right to speak about the nine forms of main consciousness, as they are the ones who have real knowledge about it.

103

In my opinion, six forms of main consciousness is enough to describe the functioning of the ego of an average man. And still let us take a closer look at all the nine forms of consciousnesses, analyzing them in the aspect of spiritual development.

Secondary Types of Consciousness

The number of secondary consciousnesses varies from one Buddhist text to another. However, the most common one is 49 and 51 (or 54 and even 121).

Now let us analyze briefly the 51 types of secondary consciousnesses. They are divided into 6 groups.

The first fivefold group consists of secondary consciousnesses, which accompany every type of consciousness: contact, taking into consciousness, feeling, recognition and intention.

The second fivefold group, individual determinative secondary consciousnesses, consists of aspiration, mindfulness, belief, concentration and wisdom. They accompany every main consciousness, even the state of stupor or distraction: there is concentration in distraction, and there is wisdom in stupor (which consists in being aware of the stupor), etc.

All our actions are considered to be good, not good or neutral. Those resulting in the bliss of the one who has performed them are good. Those that lead to the opposite results are not good. The thought and deeds that have neutral results are said to be neutral.

The elevenfold group of good secondary consciousnesses consists of faith, circumspection, flexibility, equanimity, shame, lack of passion, lack of hatred, lack of ignorance, lack of ill will, and zeal. All of them accompany the good state of main consciousness.

The six-membered group of the basic profane secondary consciousnesses (states and thoughts that cause restlessness are called profane) consists of passion, anger, pride, ignorance, profane views and doubt.

There are five types of profane views:

1. Sticking to one’s own “Self” and dividing everything into “Mine” and “Not mine”. It is based on the misconception about our mental and physical components: we believe that they form a single, indivisible whole;

2. Running to extremes (permanence, non-existence, etc.)

104

3. Perverted views (for example, when one believes that karmic causation does not

exist);

4.Adhering to false views;

5.Adhering to false moral principles and behavior.

The basic profane secondary consciousnesses, described above, give rise to the twenty derivative profane secondary consciousnesses: rage, rancor, concealment, malice, envy, greed, pretence, boastfulness, ill will, lack of shame, fatigue, excitement, lack of faith, laziness, lack of circumspection, forgetfulness, absent-mindedness and carelessness.

In the world of desire (samsara), all the basic and derivative profane actions are not good, with the exception of sticking to one’s own “Self”, running to extremes and inborn ignorance.

In the so-called “form realm” and the “formless realm”, where there are only good and neutral thoughts, all profanities are neutral (and there is not so many of them: there are no such gross profanities as anger, envy, ill will, etc. In short, there are no profane actions that can prevent getting into the state of deep concentration).

The last group consists of four changeable secondary consciousnesses. They are called “changeable”, as they can be good, not good or neutral, depending on the intention, which preceded them, etc. They are sleep, regret, brief analysis and thorough analysis.

In Buddhism, all of the eight main types of consciousness may be simultaneously active. Each of them is accompanied by the corresponding types of feelings, contact, intention, etc.

The Abhidharma gives a detailed description of each secondary consciousness. It also explains how many types of secondary consciousness accompany a particular type of main consciousness and what they are. For example, the first and the second group of secondary consciousnesses accompany all types of main consciousnesses.

Thus, intention, mindfulness, etc. are non-conceptual if they accompany nonconceptual perception. For example, mindfulness would mean just keeping the object in one’s mind. If the 10 consciousnesses of the first and second group accompany conceptual consciousness, even contact, feeling, etc. are conceptual. Besides, if the main consciousness is good, it is accompanied by 10 good secondary consciousnesses. If it also belongs to the

world of passion, it is accompanied by brief and thorough analysis. All in all, it is

105

accompanied by 22 secondary consciousnesses. Thus, every main consciousness is accompanied by a certain number of secondary consciousnesses. It is impossible to describe all of them in the framework of this book. Moreover, it is not relevant to what we are going to discuss now.

All consciousnesses of the five senses and mental consciousness, besides the first group of secondary consciousnesses (which function everywhere), are also accompanied by all good and many profane and changeable states of consciousness. Thus, even direct visual perception can be good or non-good. However, the first ten of the twenty secondary profane states of consciousness – rage, rancor, concealment, anger, greed, deception, boastfulness, ill will, pride, doubt, profane views, sleep and regret accompany only mental consciousness.

There are eight types of main consciousness. Alaya-vijnana is said to be accompanied by only five consciousnesses of the first group (which function everywhere).

The profane mind is accompanied by these five, plus sticking to one’s own “self”, ignorance, pride and passion – nine in all.

Correct and Incorrect Consciousness

In Buddhism, all consciousnesses are divided into direct perception and conceptual perception. They can be correct or incorrect. Seeing two moons, which is caused by sight disorder, is an example of incorrect direct perception. The idea that Vladimir Kozlov is the president of the United States may serve as an example of incorrect conceptual consciousness. The idea that two times two equals four is an example of correct conceptual consciousness.

Unerring perception of sounds, colors, smells, etc. is a correct direct perception. The experience of impermanence by direct yogic perception is also an example of correct direct perception. Apperception always corresponds to correct direct perception.

“Correctness” of consciousness varies from one Buddhist school to another. All of the four philosophical schools consider the three following types of consciousness to be incorrect: non-comprehending, misunderstanding and doubting. There are two types of correct consciousness: direct perception and conceptual perception. Correct perception has to be new, only the first moment of direct perception is correct. The following moments of the

same perception stream is called subsequent perception ( if it is not caused by other objects

106

or following moments of the same objects, which are considered to be other objects, as nothing lasts longer than for a moment). The subsequent perception is non-comprehending, as it seems to it that the objects that have ceased to exist are still there.

Conceptual and Non-conceptual Consciousness

All types of consciousness correspond to either direct or conceptual perception. The basic difference between them lies in the fact that while direct perception comprehends the object through the triple interaction between object, organ and consciousness, conceptual perception takes the conceptually created image for the real object (mistakes it for the real object) and eventually does not require the presence of the real object. We can say that the real object is replaced by its image.

It is also believed that the objects of direct perception exist independently from concepts, while conceptual perception clings to the mental image of the object, eliminating other images.

However, one should not confuse elimination of the object with its negation.

Negation means that “this and this is not that and that”. Elimination implies singling out a certain object, which can be used both for negative and positive concepts. Buddhists say that in order to create the correct concept of a table we have to eliminate the non-table, which means elimination of everything that is not a flat object with four legs. However, such elimination is based on direct perception of the flat object with four legs, so it turns out that in order to eliminate the non-table one has to create the concept of a table, which, in its turn, requires the elimination of a non-table, which is based on the concept of a table, and so on. That would be true if we did not have direct perception. As long as we have it, direct perception is the starting point of any mentation.

Even abstract ideas are created on the basis of direct perception. In this case, the

“non-table” is not an idea, based on the idea of a table. The “non-table” is a conceptual generalization of everything that is not a flat object with four legs.

Such generalization does not require the knowledge of all of the objects that form the category of “non-table”, and the ability to list them quickly. The general idea about something that does not have four legs and flat surface is enough. This is clear from our own

experience.

107

In case of direct perception, perception does not imply awareness of the thing as being such-and-such. It simply means that a particular image emerges in our consciousness, which is later described as such-and-such. In order to make explanation easier, it is said that at first we perceive a flat object with four legs (which is done by direct perception) and then conceptual perception labels it with “table”. In fact, it happens as follows (according to the

Sautrantika): at first, there is perception, caused by external atoms. The image is not yet characterized as such-and-such. Next, conceptual perception labels the experience with

“table”. And only later, describing the process of perception, we retrospectively note that we have labeled certain forms with such-and-such characteristics, as we know that concepts are created by singling out particular qualities.

Thus, elimination of the “non-table” is equal to selecting the table from the mass of other phenomena. Direct perception is not able to do this, as it reflects everything that gets in its field.

According to Buddhism, direct perception is always passive. While seeing a vase, our visual perception does not define it as a vase. However, even though conceptual perception does not depend on the presence of the object, it labels a vase as a vase, a table as a table, etc. That is why it is said that direct perception is like a dumb man capable of seeing and conceptual perception is like a blind man endowed with speech. Direct perception does not define the object, but evokes the correct conceptual consciousness, which is capable of labeling.

2.5.9. Sadhana and Metaphors for Personal Growth

Sadhana and personal growth are two contradictory concepts. We have already given a general description of sadhana, using the Noble Eightfold Path as an example. The Eightfold Path is a means, a method and a practice, leading to nirvana. Practicing bhikku (sadhak) strives for liberation through realization of the three stages of spiritual path (prajna, shila, and samadhi). With the view of achieving arhatship and nirvana, Buddhists live in sanghas, observe ceremonies, read spiritual literature, meditate, sing mantras, practice asanas and observe celibacy (brahmacharya).

108

In Buddhism, the concept of “personal growth” is applicable to several stages of spiritual perfection.

Every stage has a specific object. The classification given below does not exist in Buddhist literature, but it gives a better understanding of the possibilities offered by the Buddhist spiritual path.

1. Strengthening Morality and Improving Karma

Buddhism is an impeccable ethical teaching at all stages of spiritual development, but it is particularly apparent at the first stage. The first stage is like a straitjacket for ordinary people, whose life is full of passions, desires, instincts and all kinds of dark states of mind. In a sense, upasakas, ordinary people who have become Buddha’s followers, already take refuge in the three jewels. They see karma as a law of retribution: any bad action, thought, intention or emotion is associated with Mara (a demon-tempter, similar to Satan in Christianity), who entices people away from the spiritual path into the depths of suffering and torment in this life, which leads to future rebirths as evil creatures (narakas) or hungry ghosts (pretas).

Good deeds, in their turn, are encouraged: people are promised to have a better life in this birth and to be reborn either as a member of a higher caste, or in the world of semigods and Gods.

The five percepts undertaken by lay followers is not just a code, declared by government and neglected by common people.

The five percepts is a categorical moral imperative, a fundamental unconditional requirement.

The sacred percepts are inherent in upasakas’ life. They are reinforced by mythological and social virtues and taboos. It is not only Buddha’s life that sets an example for upasakas, but the whole world, with its cruelty and virtue, good and evil, poverty and wealth, weakness and omnipotence. Undertaking the five percepts means seeking retribution in the form of power, strength, wealth, health and ability to avoid evil.

It is not easy to be an upasaka. The one who successfully undertakes the five Buddhist percepts for layman corresponds to not less than an ideal for European society.

109

In a sense, upasaka’s sadhana is not easier than the spiritual path of a monk. For laypeople not only live “next” to Buddhism. They are immersed in the everyday world of murder, theft, deceit, the cult of sex and drinking.

It is difficult to live in mud and stay clean, to be exposed to rain and not get wet.

In my opinion, the first stage represents the most significant social achievement of Buddhism. It is at this very stage that we see the most evident fruit of Buddhist personal development model – a reasonable and moral person.

2. Bhikkhu’s Sadhana: Three Dimensions of the Path of Buddhist Monk.

Dimension One: The Sacrifice of The Ego

Buddhist monk finds himself in a more favorable situation, than upasaka. He is surrounded by Sangha, a community of like-minded people. He does not bear the burden of work and is not concerned about building a good career. He has a lot of time for reflection, meditation, spiritual development and reading Buddhist texts.

However, the life of a monk is full of taboos. As it has already been mentioned above, Bhikkhu has to follow 227 Pratimoksha rules.

Being a novice adds five more percepts to the five percepts undertaken by laypeople: one should refrain from eating after noon; from dancing, singing and going to see entertainments; from wearing jewelry, using perfume and cosmetics; from sitting on high and luxurious chairs and beds and from accepting money; one should study the Dharma and Vinaya-Pitaka and get ready for ordination (Upasampada – the rite of ordination, by which one undertakes Buddhist monastic life).

Noviceship is the first step on sadhana. We can say that novices already put on yellow robes. In my opinion, entering the Noble Eightfold Path, they already have the “right view”, that is understanding of the four noble truths.

But this understanding is not deep enough to undergo the complete transformation from layman to bhikkhu. At the first stage of sadhana the novice’s personality has not yet changed. He has not liberated himself from delusions, passions, instincts and emotions. He has not rid himself of his old habits.

110