Introduction to text linguistics. Учебное пособие

6.Субботин М.М. Гипертекст: новая форма письменной коммуникации // ВИНИТИ. М., 1994. Сер. Информатика. Т. 18. С. 22–36.

7.Langer S. Philosophy in a New Key: A Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite andArt: THE NEWAMERICAN LIBRARY, 1948

8.Рязанцева Т.И. Гипертекст и электронная коммуникация. М.:

ЛКИ, 2010. 256 с.

9.Peirce C.S. Peirce on Signs: Writings on Semiotic. North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. 1994, 294 p.

10.J. Baudrillard. Simulacra et Simulation: Galilée, 1985. 204 с.

61

6.ASPECTS OF ORALTEXT

6.1. Specifics of Oral Text creation

The ability to speak elegantly and persuasively (eloquence) has played an important role throughout the history of mankind, but it was in the Ancient Greece that it was transformed into a form of Art and even a profession and was later called rhetoric. Broadly defined, the term means that each time we would like to persuade someone we resort to rhetorical tools, even if subconsciously.

Russian Rhetoric Theory is associated with such names as M.V. Lomonosov, A.A. Potebnya and academician V.V. Vinogradov, but it only started to develop actively in the middle of the XX century and is mostly connected with the works of Y.V. Rozhdestvenskiy [1]. The review of these science concepts goes beyond the content of this chapter. The list at the end of the book contains references for further reading on the matter.

Today, efficient speech is regarded both as Art and Science. It should be noted, that public speaking means prepared speech based on the written sources, which affects its structure and form [2].

However, during the preparatory stage or even the delivery, clashes between bookish, written speech style and its oral realization occur on a regular basis. The main difference between oral and written texts lies in purely linguistic factors, but the speaker’s acting abilities, charisma, persuasiveness and quick reaction to feedback are of utmost importance. The speaker may rely on improvisation to a greater or lesser extent, modifying, changing and uttering spontaneous replies to the audience.

Unlike written text perception, the addressee is in direct contact with the addresser, which makes it easier for the latter to modify the speech balancing between bookish and and conversational styles, extra bookishness making speech sound too formal and extra simplicity turning the utterance into a mundane talk.

The addresser should bear in mind that the text is delivered linearly and is perceived via an audio channel. The receiver thus cannot return to any point in the speech for clarifications. Thus oral speech text follows somewhat different rules of creation.

62

Public speaking is not homogeneous in its structure, since different objective links exist between the acts of reality, objects, events, separate arguments. These are then translated into various functional-notional types of speech: descriptions, narrations and deliberation. Monologues are built upon diachronic and synchronic processes and cause-and-effect relations. Public speaking mostly consists of monologic narration (information about the course of events), monologic description (information about simultaneous attributes of the object) and monologic deliberation of cause and effect. Notional types are represented in speech depending its type, aim and conceptual intention of the speaker. The type is chosen by the speaker to serve best in expressing his thoughts, position, helping the recipients embrace the message or influence the audience effectively [3].

6.2. Oral text structure

Public Speech is an entity. Its unity is ensured by the main idea (problem) of the message, notional links, logical organization of narration and consistent coherence.To facilitate the perception of oral texts, many of them are preceded with a short annotation, where the speaker states what he is going to speak about.

Classic Public Speech composition consists of 5 parts: Beginning, Introduction, Body, Conclusion, Ending, which means it has a frame structure. In practice, some parts (excluding body) can be omitted. In general, any text rproduction both oral or written is a creative process and is not subject to any clichés, as speech reflects individuality of the orator.

The main object of the Beginning is to establish contact with the audience. Typically this is achieved through complimentary etiquette formulas like: “It’s a pleasure to be standing here, in front of you”, “Thank you for having invited me”. Sometimes, the orstor can start with a joke (usual for Western politicians). For example, Bill Clinton, when he was a Democratic candidate in 1990, delivering a campaign speech in front of the National Steel and Shipbuilding Company workers in 1990, thanked the party organizers who had introduced him to the audience and asked them not to leave the stage because otherwise he would feel lonely and frightened in front of such a large audience [4].

Sometimes, however, the speaker tries to attrsacked the audience’s attention by starting with something unexpected – a paradox, a real life

63

story, etc. as in the fragment of a lecture below on Rome emperor Caligula delivered byA.F. Kony1:

“As a child, I liked fairy tales. The most impressive one was (pause) about an ogre, a cannibal, who ate kids. Being a little boy, I pitied all those kids, who the ogre had slaughtered like pigs with a large knife and thrown into a large steaming pot. I was so much afraid of that oger, that when it was getting darker in the room, I was thinking of how to escape from becoming part of his meal. When I grew up and learned something, then… (here comes very important transitory part to Caligula) … One may ask what does the ogre come in? Well, the thing is that the ogre in the tale and Caligula in real life are brothers in terror” [5].

As is seen from the example, the orator establishes a contact with the audience at the very beginning by applying personal pronoun “I”. Referring to the audience, the addresser uses pronoun “you”, while in scientific speech orator’s “we” is frequently used.

The sequence of “I” and “we” (us) makes the recipient feel that they act together with the addresser, makes them more perceptive to addresser’s arguments. Verb forms with appropriate endings and some constructions (Let me explain. Let’s explain. It is known that, etc.) as well as imperative forms (Remember! Think!) serve the same purpose.

The next element of composition is Introduction. It precedes the speech, prepares listeners (recipients) for the presentation, informs of its theme (content aspect), enumerates the questions that will be reviewed in the main part, strengthens the contact with the audience that has already been established in the Beginning (psychological aspect), points to specifics, relevancy and importance of the topic. The list of components can vary depending on the speech type and the audience.

Introduction makes a gradual transit to the main part, where the main content is presented – facts, logical evidences, arguments, theoretic thesis, samples analysis, rebuttals, etc. This part excessively exploits rhetorical questions and the question-answer unity. As a stylistic device, rhetorical question appears to be a kind of exclamation and is used to attract the audience’s attention to a certain part of the statement. Question-answer unity is a kind of rhetorical question used by the addresser to highlight the significance of the problem by posing a question and providing an instant answer to it.

1 Afamous Russian lawyer, orator and University professor.

64

Conclusion recaps what has been said, summarizes the ideas expressed in the main part, briefly repeats main points and once again emphasizes the main idea of the speech and the importance of the chosen topic for the audience. Depending on the topic, certain tasks can be posed to the audience or possible outcomes of the ideas mentioned in the speech can be proposed. Conclusion is often closely connected with the ending, which typically includes ethic formulas, appeals, etc. The exact speech etiquette formulas depend on the situation in which the presentation is performed. They can be formal (Dear colleagues) and informal – emotional (Dear friends) or traditional (Let me conclude by saying…).

6.3. Speech writing

Based on the content, aims and conditions of utterance, the following sub-styles of Oratory Style can be singled out: socio-political, academic, court, social and church. Each can be further divided into sub-sub-types. Although they are all monologue in form, most of them (excluding political) acquire some dialogization throughout the presentation, when the feedback from the audience can influence the structural-semantic organization to a certain extent.

However, general rules on speech writing are mostly the same for any type:

1.First, choose a topic. The topic should be relevant, interesting, specific, well-defined, and comprehendible. It should not be overloaded with problems: two or three issues would be enough.

2.Goal setting. The main goal is to persuade, give the listeners certain information to influence them, and shape their views that will later turn into motives of these people’s behavior. The concrete goal depends on the topic and the situation.

3.Assessment of the situation, the number and make-up of the audience, their attitude towards the topic. Prior to presenting to a larger audience, it is advisable to check availability of technical devices, speech length limits, if there is a table or a speaker’s stand to put the text of the speech on, and even time of the day the speech is to be delivered.

Assessment of the audience is done in accordance with the following parameters: social and occupational status, cultural and educational level, age, gender, ethnic characteristics. It is very important to estimate the

65

homogeneity of the audience: the less homogenous it is, the more difficult it is to involve everyone. One should appeal to emotions with the young people, logics and arguments will be relevant for adults and everyone needs logical persuasion, brevity and factual accuracy.

However, there are a few cases are well-known when the orator’s magnetism filled third-rate speeches with deep meaning for the listeners (Adolf Hitler being a textbook example).

Preliminary work on theory and facts. Properly selected facts and data make speech more peculiar, objective, comprehensible and persuasive. Facts illustrate arguments and prove their accuracy. Facts should be understandible, convincing, valid and relevant – reflecting the essence of the phenomenon. Speech writing requires working with different sources [3].

Speech composing, i.e. its structure and stylistic format. To prepare the presentation itself, a full speech, a summary, a detailed or a sketchy plan may be written. The choice depends on the speaker’s preferences, his experience, knowledge etc. Language should be literary and literate but metaphoric enough and emotional, as enthusiastic listeners better understand and are easier persuaded [6]. Each type of Oratory has its own clichés and collocations to promote better understanding. Stylistic devices that most often appear in oral texts are also traditional. Those are mostly metaphors, repetitions, allusions, and quotations.

Speech rehearsal. It is a good idea to read the speech out loud in front of a mirror, practicing intonation, improving articulation and word stress, delivery accuracy, tempo, pauses and emphasis. Rehearsal will also help measure the speech length, if there is a time frame. A speaker reading from notes is sure to fail because droning will tire out the audience very quickly [3].

It should be kept in mind that holding the audience’s attention for more than 8–10 minutes is almost impossible. This implies that in a longer speech the topic should be regularly changed, and examples, jokes and other attention-catching devices should be introduced.

6.4. Presentation (public speaking)

Bachelor’s and Master’s dissertation defense (Thesis defense, Viva voce) in fact appear to be a “product” presentation and the speaker should

66

try to “sell” it. Of course, the first step is making sure it the thesis is in good shape before submitting it.

Viva’s purpose is to [7]:

–confirm that the thesis is your own work;

–confirm that you understand what you have written;

–investigate your awareness of where your original work sits in relation to the wider research field;

–provide a developmental opportunity for considering future publication and research options.

Your aim is to know your thesis very well and to be calm and confident as you begin your viva. Remember that most students who reach this stage do succeed in gaining their grade. Here are some ideas to help you regain and retain familiarity with the detail [7]:

–re-read your thesis carefully. If you notice any mistakes, don’t panic. Make a note of them so that it won’t be a surprise to you if they are mentioned in the viva, and so that you can address them when you are making your final corrections following the viva [7];

–as you read, make summary notes on the main points on each page;

–print out the contents pages with plenty of spacing, and write very brief summaries of the content under each heading;

–practise telling the story of the whole research in 2 minutes;

–practise telling the story of different chapters, each in 2 minutes;

–identify areas of weakness and make notes on each;

–identify the elements of originality in your thesis;

–identify your contribution to knowledge;

–identify the theoretical, research, and practical implications of your findings.

Usually, a speaker deals with a prepared audience who have already listened to some other presentations and, perhaps, some of the listeners have already got tired and lost interest in what is happening. In order to present yourself and your work in the most favorable way, a few simple rules should be followed:

1. Speech should be short, lasting for preferably no more than 7–10 minutes.

2. It should have a fixed structure. Those attending Defense procedures are used to a certain layout, and it is easier for them to follow the familiar

67

pattern, on the other hand, a small and effective digression may produce a greater impression on them.

3.The presenter should mostly focus on their personal contribution to science regardless how small it is. There is absolutely no need to repeat familiar scientific facts or general truths.

4.If presentation employs samples, schemes, descriptions etc, handout materials or demo slides should be prepared in advance. Most people perceive visual materials better that audio.

5.These are the reasons why presenters should prepare well in advance. Even if the speaker knows the topic well, but has not thought over the plan and details of the presentation speech, they will almost inevitably fail to impress the audience with inert, illogical and non-illustrative speech.

6.Speaker’s appearance also plays an important role. Since the presentation is the defense of a scientific work, you should look accordingly. Dress style, haircut and make up should not be provoking, annoying or distracting from the positive aspects of your work.

The presentation will have had approximately the following timing:

–greetings, presentation, topic announcement – 1 minute;

–significance and importance of research, aims and goals – 2–3 minutes;

–essence of the work – 3–4 minutes;

–results of the research – 1–2 minutes;

–conclusion (thanking teachers, advisors and the audience, question time) – 1 minute.

Thus, the minimum speech duration is 8 minutes, while the maximum is 11 minutes. Exceeding the time limit is highly unadvisable (see 6.3).

The most frequently asked questions at the defence presentation are:

–Why did you decide on this particular research question?

–What’s the purpose of your research?

–What is your contribution?

–What did you find?

–Why does that matter?

–Why did you choose this material for analysis?

Practice answering them in advance.

The following defense speech may be regarded as an example of what a Defence Speech looks like in this University, Linguistics department.

68

Dear Chairman of the State Examination Commission, dear members of the State Certification Commission, dear colleagues and friends!Allow me to bring to your attention the graduation qualification work (name of the paper).

My research paper is related to the rating system and the way it influences students’ motivation. The utmost goal of my diploma project is to find out whether the rating system motivates learners to gain new knowledge and skills or not and to measure the level of students’motivation.

To achieve this aim, the next objectives are to be met:

–to outline the bilateral concept of motivation as a pedagogical phenomenon;

–to conduct 4 questionnaires within the first-year students of our university in order to examine the degree of their motivation in different periods of time;

–to analyze the data obtained;

–to define the degree of student’s motivation and in what way the rating system influences their overall academic performance.

In order to meet these objectives, a deliberate decision to conduct 4 polls was taken, due to the fact that the alteration of motivation would be observed better.

The final questionnaire was conducted in the end of March and the data obtained showed that the rating system does influence students’ motivation. The crux of the matter is that there is a learner’s tendency to strive for credits only, and their strive increases considerably during the credit week. Due to the fact that the majority of students gave a negative answer to the question “Do you think that the rating system motivates you to gain new knowledge?” the following conclusion could be made: learners are not interested in obtaining knowledge as it is supposed to be, but in gaining credits only.

And here a dramatic question of motivation arises. Such authors as Yakobson, Ilyin, Zimnyaya in their works attempt to outline the bilateral concept of motivation.Also on the background of a thorough analysis taken by Bozhovitch who tried to distinguish students who are positively and negatively motivated, one might suggest that students of our university are negatively motivated as their primary aim is to gain more credits only.

However, on the background of such researchers as Popova, Glushenkova, and Barbara Davis who also examined the way the assessment influences students’motivation and as a result their academic performance, and who defined credits as the core reason to studies and gaining new knowledge, it is rational to suppose that the learners are positively motivated. The paramount argument here is that by means of obtaining more points, students embody their ability to develop intellectually and broaden their minds.

Having considered everything being mentioned above, it might be concluded, that the rating system does motivate students to studies due to the fact that it possesses a set of particular extrinsic incentives which intensify learners’ everyday academic performance and stimulate students to acquire new information.

Thank you for your attention. I am ready to answer your questions.

The only drawback of this speech is almost total lack of examples, which could have made this presentation more vivid. This can easily be amended by adding handouts.Asample of a speech.

69

Discussion and tasks

1.Name main aims of each speech component. Find them in a sample speech or Supplement 2.

2.Choose any topic and prepare a short speech for your colleagues. Justify the choice of the topic and the linguistic tools.

3.Make a draft of your Master’s Thesis Defence speech.

References

1.Рождественский Ю.В. Принципы современной риторики. М.: Фонд «Новое тысячелетие», 1999. С. 135.

2.Виноградов В. В. Избранные труды: О языке художественной прозы. М., 1980., C. 120.

3.Культура русской речи / Виноградов С.И., Платонова О.В. и др.

М.: Норма: Инфра-М, 2000. 549 с.

4.Speech to the National Steel and Shipbuilding Company Governor Bill Clinton San Diego, California, May 18, 1992.

5.Кони А. Ф. Избранные произведения. М., 1956. 112 с.

6.Судебное красноречие русских юристов прошлого. М., 1992.

200 с.

7.http://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/resources/presentations/viva.

70