Introduction to text linguistics. Учебное пособие

sections have no word limit, but the language should be clear and concise. Together, these sections should describe the results of the experiments, the interpretation of these results, and the conclusions that can be drawn. Authors should explain how the results relate to the hypothesis presented as the basis of the study and provide a succinct explanation of the implications of the findings, particularly in relation to previous related studies and potential future directions for research. Authors should avoid overstating their conclusions.

Acknowledgments

Those who contributed to the work but do not meet our authorship criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments with a description of the contribution. Authors are responsible for ensuring that anyone named in theAcknowledgments agrees to be named.

References – any and all available works can be cited in the reference list.Acceptable sources include:

–published or accepted manuscripts;

–manuscripts on pre-print servers, if the manuscript is submitted to a journal and also publicly available as a pre-print Do not cite the following s ources in the reference list;

–unavailable and unpublished work, including manuscripts that have been submitted but not yet accepted (e.g., “unpublished work,” “data not shown”). Instead, include those data as supplementary material or deposit the data in a publicly available database;

–personal communications (these should be supported by a letter from the relevant authors but not included in the reference list). References are listed at the end of the manuscript and numbered in the order that they appear in the text. In the text, cite the reference number in square brackets (e.g., “We used the techniques developed by our colleagues [19] to analyze the data”). Use the numbered citation (citation-sequence) method and first six authors, et al. Make sure the parts of the manuscript are in the correct order before ordering the citations [1, 2].

Middle section is traditionally considered to be the most important

31

Conclusion that is remembered the longest. As a result, the body of the text plays a subordinate, supportive role providing details of research, etc1.

The main aim of Introduction is to acquaint the reader with the topic of the text. It includes the basic data on its topic and subject matter as well as facts of the case. One of the founding fathers of Text Linguistics, I.R. Galperin considered Introduction to be a self-sufficient part of Text preceding Text proper and ensuring its better comprehension.

Many journals require that the article should be a partially formalized structure that must contain information on subject matter and aim of the research, similar research by other authors, study material (test subjects) and research methods. They should be presented as separate parts of the introduction. Some introductions include topic selection rationale, formulation of a problem, its background, critical assessment of possible ways of its solution.

When preparing an introduction one should keep in mind that in order to attract the reader’s attention it must be not very long, relevant, clear, and captivating. Sometimes it is helpful to use the following means of beginning the text:

–an amusing event, anecdote, a joke that brings the reader to the central idea of the text;

–an apt proverb, saying or unusual opinion of a well-known person, a paradox;

–an astonishing fact or historical event, an interesting story, leading to the main idea of the text;

–a striking analogy, comparison;

–an account of personal experience (showing the author’s competence in the chosen problem);

–statistical data, concerning the chosen subject;

–definition of the main concept and related ideas;

–a number of provoking questions making the reader to start reflecting on the subject;

–expression of personal opinion on the chosen subject or a problem;

–introduction into the circumstances (time and place) of an event;

–extrapolating perspective of the future;

–and, last but not the least;

–a clear statement of the main idea and the author’s intentions.

1 See 3.2.

32

The main concern of the author when preparing the body of the text should be the relevance of the stated facts and the logical order of their presentation.The Body contains the elaboration of the main idea, mentioned in the text.The theme is developed, the problems solved, the most important informationrevealed[3].Incaseofcontroversytheotherparties’standpoints are revealed and argued against by giving reasons for their invalidity.

In Conclusion there should be given the sumtotal of the Text ideas. Experience shows that for a text not exceeding 2–3 pages it is often suffice to limit Conclusion to a sentence, while with larger texts we need at least a paragraph and when text exceeds 10 pages we should devote at least one pagetothesummary.Therearealsosomeacceptedwaysoffinishing thetext:

–repetition of the main ideas of the text;

–astonishing fact, story, data, supporting the ideas of the text;

–personal appraisal of the presented facts;

–expression of expedience of work in the given direction;

–presentation of the nearest and remote perspectives;

–list of possible realisations of the presented ideas;

–concrete program of further activities connected with the proposed ideas.

the Sentence) developed by Prague School of Structural Linguistics. According to them, a logical subject, theme, a starting point may be singled out in an utterance – something that the addressee should know to be able to comprehend it to the full extent. The other thing is the logical Predicate, called Rheme, the core of the utterance, its aim, the new information, the reason for the utterance.

Thematic-Rhematic relations are connected with word order. Text Linguistics discerns three models of such relations that can be found almost in all functional styles: 1) linear thematic progression where the rheme of the previous sentence becomes the theme of the next one (socalled ab-bc-cd model); 2) thematic-rhematic progression with continuity, which means the theme remains the same during a certain fragment of the text and 3) thematic-rhematic progression with derivative themes that are connected by peculiar relations with hypertheme. The third model combines models 1 and 2 that are present inside different fragments.

33

Word order inside sentences and sentence order inside Text are usually determined by the author’s communicative goal. Besides, it depends on the context and performs text-building functions, being different for differentstructured texts.

The next factor influencing the form of the text is the Referent, the object of communication. It has several aspects – the scope (varying in broadness from unimportant episodes to epic deeds or from highly specialized to universal subjects), the temporal (time) orientation, the areal (place) orientation, and the character (abstract or concrete; texts on theory of relativity and doing sums would have quite different character; descriptions of a pen would be more uniform than those describing the difference between love and friendship).

Developing a topic requires introducing a lot of details anddescriptions, so subtopics are distinguished within the main topic.

Subtopic is usually defined as a part of topic, which “differs from the latter either by a narrower range of contemplation or by studying just one aspect of the problem while maintaining the general direction of study” [4, P. 80]. Topic and subtopic relations are described as hierarchical, as they are whole-part relationship.

These subtopics will be different in fiction and scientific texts. In fiction texts subtopics will be presented by descriptions of time and place of action, characters’ descriptions, changes in their relationships, action dynamics, etc., whereas in a scientific text subtopics will reflect the structure of the science subject matter.

The main idea of the text or its fragment is formulated by the author as the “text subject” and that makes the rest of the text the “text predicate” which falls into systems of levelized subject-predicate relations. This points to an emerging possibility of building a comprehensive text sense pattern, sort of a “sense tree” that will help to determine the role of every “branch” of the message. Thus functionally Text is created on the basis of the key thematic-rheme relationship that breaks down into smaller topics each containing its own theme and rheme, with rheme of the previous fragment becoming the theme of the following one. In this way a chain connection of microtopics is formed at several levels. Discerning functional structure of a text helps the addressee to comprehend and remember the text contents.

34

One of the important elements that prepare the addressee to take in the information in the text message is the Title (headline) of the text. Its main goal is to specify the topic to the reader and give them a clue to whether the text may be useful for them.

Another aspect of the Content Structure is distribution of lexical content. Text Lexis depends on the functional type of the text and is characterized by the choice and predominance of a particular kind of lexical units – clichés in an official text, use of metaphors and expressive words in Belle-lettre and Publicist texts, or terms in scientific and technical texts.

On the other hand, a scientific text cannot consist of terms only. Studies conducted in 1970s in the MSU showed that they also include both terms and general scientific words, as well as general lexis and fillers that are instrumental for connecting words inside sentences.

Besides, a scientific text not only features “nomenclature descriptors” – terms identifying fundamental concepts but also “modal descriptors” – words, collocations and even phrases that express the authors attitude and appraisal of a piece of information (Subjective Modality) as well as objective reference (Objective Modality). Modal descriptors express possibility, obligation, necessity, significance, usefulness, unlikeliness, desirability, validity, uncertainty. Distributing different strata of lexis in Text is called Lexical Stratification of Text.

The problem of identifying of the so-called Key Words (basic semantic elements, semantic pillar) – lexical units that carry the basic semantic load in the text is closely connected with the content distribution problem. The body of such informative lexemes forms the Semantic Framework of Text. Key Words allow distributing the semantic load equally. As a rule this role is not assigned to just any lexical unit, for example, in Scientific Text it belongs to terms. Research on automation of Text Processing conducted at the beginning of the 1980s showed that key word sequences deliver the main content of a report or abstract quite adequately.

3.3. Peculiarities of Linguistic Structure

As it has already been mentioned, Linguistic structure presupposes a hierarchy of language unit levels. Beginning from the top, it includes Supratext, Text (macrotext), Microtext (SPU), and, sometimes, Sentence.

Itscomplexitydependsonthetextvolume–thelargerthetext,themore complex its structure, with more levels. Taking a closer look at such texts

35

we see them fall into microthemes, separate episodes, sometimes rather loosely connected, especially at early stages of literature development. Dictionaries are an example of Text with multy-level structure especially obvious: each lexical entry being a microtext with its own structure. We can easily see a distinct opposition of the general macrotext level to microtexts structure of each entry.

Within Computer Linguistics closely linked problems of generating sentences or texts and problems of machine translation are ever more urgent. To computerize text generation, we need the algorithms of text unit linking and word collocations inside a sentence for both coding and

decoding Text [5].

Today different points of view exist on what the basic units of Text are. The idea accepted by most specialists names SPUs as such. They may be defined as a combination of sentences closely connected in meaning and syntax, developing one common theme or idea, usually summarized in one sentence called “topic sentence”. Compared to a sentence SPU expresses the idea fuller, in more detail. Where a sentence corresponds to a logical statement, an SPU represents an inference.

The logical composition of SPU consists of an opening sentence that conceives the topic and often coincides with the topic sentence, the body where the topic is developed and the coda (the conclusion of the microtext). The topic sentence is usually the upper limit of a paragraph. Developing of the topic is usually done by so-called supporting sentences, containing arguments in favour of the proposition, recitation of supporting facts, summary of its different aspects or different views on it. The lower limit of SPU is a clincher. It contains a summary, a conclusion implied by the arguments in the Body or a further statement. This is a microstructure similar to the structural logics of a macrotext.

SPU content is characterized by common limited topic and close-knit sentences. Linguistically it has common modality, peculiar means of sentence cohesion and formal borders (indentations of pauses). The topical sentence is characterizedbyfullgrammarandarticulatemeaning(asitlaysthegroundfor further content) and relative self-sufficiency compared to other sentences.The sentencesbecomeanentitywiththehelpofdifferentmeansofcohesion.

SPU theory may be studied from the Semiotics (studying signs and sign processes) angle, as every SPU has properties of a sign. Thus there are three aspects to consider an SPU: semantic (meaning), syntactic (construction) and pragmatic (functioning).

36

The meaning of SPU is created by the integrated meaning of the sentences included in it, together forming a new meaningful unit that may be studied in Logics, Linguistics or Information Science. Rules of SPU structure and making are studied by Text Grammar, and those of their pragmatics by Information Science, Text Stylistics (interpretation) and TextApplied Linguistics.

In a non-fiction text SPU logically represents an inference, conclusion or separate arguments, just like a term represents a notion and a sentence represents a statement.

Building a text from SPUs means reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of a chain, a logical sequence, where previous inferences become premises of the next link.

Architectonically, inside a text, SPU takes form of paragraphs. The relation of paragraph and SPU has been argued about a lot. Some researchers claim them to be the same. True, in about 90% of cases they coincide. But sometimes, for various reasons several SPUs may be found in one paragraph or several paragraphs may contain one SPU. The latter usually happens, when the author wants to lay logical emphasis on each part, as the addressee (the reader) perceives each paragraph as a separate microtest with its separate topic. It happens more often in works of fiction.

Sometimes we come across Supraphrasal unities consisting of one sentence in slogans and proverbs. It means that the author considered that the subject is quite well-known (hence the absence of an introduction), and does not need supporting arguments (hence the absence of the body).

So obviously we should perceive SPU as a unit of composition, determined by the author’s intention, and paragraph as a unit of structure.

In non-fiction texts SPUs should coincide with paragraphs as it promotes better understanding of the author’s train of thought. If the author tries to squeeze several SPUs in one paragraph it deteriorates text comprehension and confuses the reader. Оn the other hand, dividing one SPU among several paragraphs is only justified in cases when it serves a text functions (ads, lists, etc.).

3.4. Types of Cohesion

Linguistic Composition also includes means of Cohesion that fall into two distinct groups. There are uniting means, mostly grammar means, like

37

unity of time, person, modality; lexical homogeneousness and same code – using proper lexemes, the same language or proper formulae; thematicrhematic linking and co-reference. The other one is Connectors that include different means of lexical cohesion.

There are two types of Thematic-Rhematic linking that exists both between SPUs in the text and sentences within SPUs.

Chain linking reflects progression of thought in coherent speech. It is achieved by using the Rheme of the previous sentence as the Theme of the next one, like in this example.

“The ultimate unit of text is a supraphrasal unity. Supraphrasal unity is a combination of sentences…”.

Parallel linking is used to show comparison, contraposition or enumeration (listing). Structurally it means that all sentences follow the same syntactic model as the first one. Other structural properties include similar word order and grammar structures, especially in the beginning of each sentence. Very often in such SPUs the first sentence summarizes the topic, while the following ones expand on and illustrate its different aspects.

“The origins of these rules are complex and diverse. Some rules reflect a helpless search for order and uniformity in seeming chaos of choices and varieties. Some combat presumed markers of verbosity, obscurity and pretense. Some are taken uncritically from old handbooks.” [6; 15].

Lexical means of Cohesion, connectors, are extremely diverse. Among others, they include name repetition, like in the example of chain linking.

The sphere of Formal Cohesion through lexical repetition outside Scientific Text is considered to be comparatively narrow. This can be explained by its lexical limitations. Texts with numerous lexical repetitions are percepted as barren in style and characterless. On the other hand, it should be taken into consideration, that Scientific Style is intended for communicating information, not achieving stylistic effects. High incidence of lexical repetition in Scientific Texts is caused by stability of terminology and undesirability of synonyms caused by pursuance of unambiguity [7; 13].

Synonyms and lexical variations are used for the same purposeas in the examples 1 and 2:

1.The ultimate unit of text is a supraphrasal unity or a complex syntax unity. Complex syntax unity is a combination of sentences… (synonyms).

2.Theultimateunitoftextisasupraphrasalunity.SPUisacombination of sentences… (variants, abbreviations).

38

We may also use antonyms, because, for example, speaking about air humidity and aridity we are speaking about the same thing. Use of synonyms and antonyms makes the speech more expressive, but it is mostly reserved for popular science, not academic, texts.

Pronouns are extremely popular connectors: – The ultimate unit of text is a supraphrasal unity. It is a combination of sentences… (pronoun it).

Pronoun substitution is considered to be the most frequent, widespread and neutral type of Cohesion. “On the one hand, using a pronoun instead of repeating the same lexeme helps to avoid stylistic monotony, preserve terminological chasteness and accuracy; on the other hand, use of pronouns as substitutes for whole phrases or their parts helps achieve compression and high information capacity so necessary for science texts. Besides, using “this” or “these” as a substitute often occurs due to change in presentation aspect, switching to assessment, comment, explanation” [7; 13].

Other connectors include hyperonyms (words with broader meaning): “A dog entered the room. The poor animal gratefully devoured the sausages that were left forgotten at a chair”;

hyponyms (words with narrower meaning): “A dog entered the room. The stupid poodle stained a new carpet with his mudded paws and was immediately expelled into the anteroom.”;

conjunctions; “How nice it would to get presents every day and not only on birthdays. But it is never done…”;

adverbs; “It was so nice to live in the old times. Then you didn’t have to wash your ears every day…”;

special expressions (at the same time, such cases, etc.); articles in such languages where they exist.

3.5. Text architectonics. Surface Structure and Deep Structure

By Formal Composition (or Architectonics of Text) we mean formal division of the text into formal parts – volumes, parts, chapters, and, finally, paragraphs. Different types of Text Architectonics may be uniform and even standardized. There are different kinds of reports, thesauruses, business letters, different kinds of documentation, etc. But fiction texts may also have peculiar architectonics, especially different genres of poetry: sonnet, limerick or haiku, to name but a few.

39

For a non-fiction text coincidence of Linguistic Structure and Architectonics, like paragraph and SPU, is ideal. In a scientific text following this rule makes it twice as easy to understand and remember the information. In case a sentence expresses a separate independent or very important idea, it may form a paragraph too.

The three Composition Structure systems described above, form the Surface structure of Text. But the authors’intention is very often contained in the so-called Deep Structure (D-structure), that is implicit information deduced from the text. This concept is still being developed and does not have a generally accepted definition.

Nevertheless we may claim that D-structure reflects the utterance construction process, and how it gets included in the text. The linguistic means the author uses to send his message are selected and organized in such a way as to minimize possible noise and maximize comprehension.

In any communicative act the preciseness of comprehending is different for different addressees. Sometimes the message is understood only partially or not at all (like adult jokes in a cartoon for children), if the addressee lacks linguistic or background knowledge.

Linguistic Content is just the first layer of its D-structure, which forms the foundation of such a structure, as the implicit information is extracted from it and through it. But usually it contains the lesser part of the information in a message.

To carry a lot of implicit information, it is important that the author chooses such linguistic means, as can carry additional implicit information. Equally important is the ability of the addressee to extract this information, using their background knowledge, personal life experience command of the language and intertextuality.

Discussion and tasks

1.Name Text composition components.

2.Extract implicit information from this example:

Now my wife, Hilda, is a good, plain cook. In saying that, I’m not referring to She Who Must Be Obeyed’s moral values or passing any judgment on her personal appearance.

40