English for Students of Public Relations and Advertising. Rendering. Учебное пособие

C. READING

Read the article.

The word propaganda comes from the Latin word meaning to propagate or to sow. In its most neutral sense it means to disseminate or promote particular ideas. Propaganda has been defined in many ways, most of which center on synonyms such as lies, distortions, deceit, manipulation, psychological warfare, brainwashing, and the more recent word spin. Spin, in particular, emphasizes the frequent difficulty of differentiating public relations from propaganda in that it is associated with the manipulation of political and corporate information to affect the way in which news is presented. As a result, the term spin doctors is now often used as a synonym for professional public relations practitioners. Propaganda has been associated with mass communication, mass persuasion, mind control, and mass brainwashing. It has a history of being used to promote an ideology and way of life that benefits some to the disadvantage of others. Few examples are more notorious than the propaganda efforts of Hitler, which he claimed to have learned from the British and American propaganda machines during the First World War.

People often see tactics they don’t like as “propaganda,” whereas when they approve of mass media campaigns they call them “preaching of the truth.” Modern practitioners of public relations and academics focus on the concepts of symbolic manipulation, cognitive manipulation, scientific mass persuasion, and asymmetry as defining attributes that separate propaganda and unethical public relations from ethical and responsible approaches to the profession.

Many scholars have grappled with a definition of the word propaganda. The French philosopher Jacques Ellul, in his book Propaganda (1965), suggested that it was an essential part of modern technologically advanced societies, and Michael Sproule (1994) suggested that it is “the work of a large organization, nation, or group to win over the public for special interests through a massive orchestration of attractive conclusions packaged to conceal both their persuasive purpose and lack of sound supporting reasons”

(p. 8). The social psychologist Leonard W. Doob summarized these definitional difficulties in 1989 by suggesting that “a clear-cut definition of propaganda is neither possible nor desirable” (p. 375).

Garth Jowett and Victoria O’Donnell have created a definition that focuses on propaganda as a communication process, more specifically on the purpose of the process: “Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to

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shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist” (1999, p. 6). This definition stresses that propaganda is “willful, intentional, and premeditated” (1999, p. 6). Although it clearly establishes propaganda as a neutral technique, it also comes close to a definition of public relations held by some of its practitioners and many of its critics, thus emphasizing the difficulty in establishing a clearer differentiation between the two practices.

The relationship of propaganda to public relations has always been a contentious one. Both of these practices stem from a common desire to affect the attitudes and perceptions held by people, collectively defined as publics, crowds, citizens, or consumers, toward an infinite variety of subjects, in order to shift opinion and beliefs in a desired direction.

Propaganda in particular has been defined in largely negative terms because of its close historical association with religion, warfare, and political practices.

Public relations, thanks largely to the strenuous efforts of its own practitioners, has managed to establish itself as a legitimate activity that enhances the images and perceptions of a wide variety of institutions. However, the common ancestry of these two practices tends to blur the distinction between them, with the result that there is often confusion in the minds of the public as to what is propaganda and what is legitimate and ethical public relations.

Public relations emerged at the end of the 19th century as a means of utilizing the increasingly powerful mass communication media to further the objectives of American industry, as well as to shape the public perception of a wide range of institutions and influential individuals. It was not coincidental that public concern about the increasing significance of the media in modern life was brought into sharp focus at precisely the same time as part of the ongoing examination of the strengths and weaknesses of an increasingly urbanized and industrialized America.

Pioneers of public relations Ivy L. Lee and Edward L. Bernays established themselves as public relations professionals, perhaps because both had a solid background in propaganda activities. Lee had worked for the Red Cross and in later life was associated with the propaganda activities of both Japan and Nazi Germany. Throughout his professional career he stressed that “the essential evil of propaganda is failure to disclose the source of information” and used this as the cornerstone of his ethics of publicity (Lee, 1925, quoted in Sproule, 1997, p. 55).

Edward L. Bernays published a book actually entitled Propaganda in 1928, and he was not ashamed to use the word manipulation in his writings.

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In his earlier work, Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923), Bernays had outlined his philosophy of public relations and acknowledged the need for the public to be informed by specialists occupying the middle ground between lack of knowledge and a stubborn tendency to hold fixed views. He noted that “the advocacy of what we believe in is education. The advocacy of what we don’t believe in is propaganda” (p. 14). In Propaganda (1928) he fully acknowledged the need for propaganda activities in a modern society, suggesting that the best propaganda was that associated with socially sound objectives. In a series of popular articles and speeches in the interwar period, Bernays advocated the use of propaganda as an alternative to force and as a means of making known minority opinions to society as a whole. Many students of Bernays’s profession believe he was imbued with the sort of analysis that made his double uncle, Sigmund Freud, an international icon for revealing the mysteries of the human mind. Bernays was fascinated by the workings of the human mind and had ample opportunity to study his uncle’s thoughts on people’s desire for identification, love of tribalism, and need for leadership.

Bernays became a student of mass psychology and loved to speculate on the ways that the opinions of large numbers of individuals could be shaped. He became legendary for his self-touted ability to mold public opinion. Although he later worked to divorce himself from the tobacco industry, he at first delighted in his success at promoting Lucky Strike Green packaging to women. To his credit, however, Bernays avoided developing a consulting relationship with Adolph Hitler and Joseph Goebbels, who had invited his counsel because they were familiar with his book on propaganda.

Jowett G.S., Heath R.L. Propaganda // Encyclopedia of Public Relations / Ed. Robert L. Heath. Volume 2. Sage Publications, 2005. – Р. 652–654.

D. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT – SUPPORTING A TOPIC SENTENCE WITH ILLUSTRATION AND CONCLUSION

1. Examine the paragraph from the article and discuss the questions that follow.

The relationship of propaganda to public relations has always been a contentious one. Both of these practices stem from a common desire to affect the attitudes and perceptions held by people, collectively defined as publics, crowds, citizens, or consumers, toward an infinite variety of subjects, in order to shift opinion and beliefs in a desired direction.

Propaganda in particular has been defined in largely negative terms because of its close historical association with religion, warfare, and political practices.

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Public relations, thanks largely to the strenuous efforts of its own practitioners, has managed to establish itself as a legitimate activity that enhances the images and perceptions of a wide variety of institutions. However, the common ancestry of these two practices tends to blur the distinction between them, with the result that there is often confusion in the minds of the public as to what is propaganda and what is legitimate and ethical public relations.

a.What kind of information does the first sentence provide?

b.What do the next sentences have to do with the first sentence?

c.Which sentence does the last sentence refer back to?

Illustration, an effective ingredient of effective writing, is used to clarify or support the main idea has been expressed in the topic sentence of a paragraph. To illustrate an idea, a writer provides clear and concise examples, persuasive explanations, appropriate statistics, and relevant anecdotes (brief stories) that support the topic sentence.

In the example paragraph, the writer provides data about differences of propaganda and public relations to show the continuous ambiguity between them. This information is not only the consequence of the topic sentence but also prepares the reader for the concluding sentence, which reinforce the main idea of the paragraph.

2. Develop an appropriate topic sentence for the fully developed paragraph below.

Topic Sentence:

Propaganda has always been part of military recruitment, albeit in an earlier era restricted to colorful uniforms or military parades. Propaganda has always been a necessity for any government actively seeking to mobilize its citizens. The American Revolution, for example, would have been inconceivable without making the case for revolution generally known. Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense (1776) sold perhaps 500,000 copies in a country with 3 million inhabitants. Nearly four score and seven years later, “Lincoln freed the slaves.” It does not trivialize the Emancipation Proclamation to remember it partly as a piece of political propaganda, originally restricted by Abraham Lincoln solely to those parts of the South already under Union control. The proclamation was more than a statement of government policy toward slaves; its promulgation assisted the recruitment of black soldiers and helped deter British recognition of the Confederacy, and as such, it served military ends.

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3. Analyze some statements based on the article. Find and write down the supporting statements in “Propaganda” which illustrate the descriptions below.

a.Propaganda has always been associated with negative things rather than positive.

b.There is a tendency today to give propaganda positive image.

c.Among scholars of PR there is no definite answer about what PR is.

d.There is ambiguity about the relations between PR and propaganda.

e.Bernays changed the way people think about propaganda.

Reading 2.5

PUBLICITY

A. PREDICTION

What do you think publicity is? What’s the difference between publicity and advertising?

B. VOCABULARY AND COMPREHENSION

Choose a synonym for each underlined word. Use your dictionaries if necessary.

1. Publicity is one function of public relations that involves deliberately disseminating strategic messages through mass media outlets (such as newspaper, television, radio, or Internet).

2. Publicity is geared toward coverage obtained and does not play a role in setting policy or providing counsel at a top organizational level.

3. Much of the success or failure in obtaining publicity hinges on the ability to understand what the media gatekeeper deems newsworthy.

4. The publicist does incur some expenses for the time and energy associated with the publicity process.

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5. This gave the practice of press agentry a dubious distinction.

C. READING

Read the article.

Publicity is one function of public relations that involves deliberately disseminating strategic messages through mass media outlets (such as newspaper, television, radio, or Internet), without payment to the media, to advance the particular interest of the publicity client. While publicity generally refers to information placed in the mass media, publicity can also involve placing information in a controlled medium such as an organizational publication or corporate report.

While publicity is a critical function of public relations, it is not synonymous with public relations. This is a common misperception among those who do not fully understand the role or scope of public relations, because publicity is among the most visible parts of public relations. Publicity is focused on the information dissemination aspect and is not generally considered a management function.

Publicity is geared toward coverage obtained and does not play a role in setting policy or providing counsel at a top organizational level. Generating publicity involves advancing the client’s interest through target-media coverage of strategic messages and events. A good publicist has a comprehensive understanding of media outlets and appropriate content in those outlets and is able to carefully select the most appropriate outlets to obtain free coverage and be of interest to the client’s target audience. Much of the success or failure in obtaining publicity hinges on the ability to understand what the media gatekeeper deems newsworthy.

Publicity is not always favorable, however. In the time of a crisis, negative publicity is also generated. It is a public relations practitioner’s responsibility to provide the organization’s side of the story in a way that accurately and favorable represents the client.

Some similarities between publicity and advertising do exist. For example, both use mass media as a channel to distribute messages. Format and context are different, however. Publicity appears in the mass media as a news or feature item or editorial content, and the source of the material is a public relations practitioner. One major advantage that publicity has over advertising is the added element of credibility because of the implicit third-

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party endorsement of the news medium. Information that has been deemed newsworthy by the media outlet is often perceived as more credible than a paid advertisement.

Another advantage of publicity is the cost. There is no cost for the time or space in the mass medium; however, the publicist does incur some expenses for the time and energy associated with the publicity process.

A major disadvantage of publicity, however, is the lack of control over the message and delivery of the material. An editor may choose to print the written material precisely as it was written in the news release, or it may be altered dramatically, to paint a negative picture or include competitors. The information goes to a metaphorical media gatekeeper who has the responsibility of making the decision to let the information pass through to the mass media channel or not to use the information at all. Therefore, the information appearing in the media is uncontrolled.

Advertising is a result of time or space in the mass media outlet that has been purchased by the advertiser; the advertiser therefore has complete control of the message content as it will appear to readers, listeners, or viewers.

Publicity is one of the oldest forms of public relations. In fact, many public relations historians believe that the modern-day practice of public relations is an outgrowth of 19th and early 20th century publicity. Along with the development of industry in the late 19th century came technology advances that allowed communicators the opportunity to communicate to mass audiences without a fee. This gave rise to the growth of publicists who were well skilled in promotion for the sole purpose of making news. Many early publicists were so intent on generating free coverage in any way possible that they allowed accuracy and ethics to fall to the wayside. This gave the practice of press agentry a dubious distinction. Publicity and promotion are considered only a part of the public relations process today.

Publicity has come under fire for being ethically suspect due, in part, to the early days of press agentry, and also because material masked as “news” is often coming directly from a public relations practitioner. This makes several factors of special importance when generating publicity. Because public relations information is designed to assist in the news gathering process, it is important that all information released by the public relations practitioner is accurate and current. While the news story may or may not identify the source of the information, it is important that the publicist provide the source of the information on all publicity materials.

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One common method for generating publicity is via research, polls, or surveys with an interesting and appropriate human interest angle for the media outlet. In fact, some research is designed for the sole purpose of generating publicity. Other tactics used to generate publicity include news releases often as part of a press kit, interviews (sometimes generated from an interview query letter) that require a well-prepared public relations spokesperson, coverage of an event resulting from a media advisory or media alert, video news releases (VNRs), and B-roll. Additionally, news articles that have appeared may be reproduced and used as part of a press kit. This is called a reprint.

Lyon L. Publicity // Encyclopedia of Public Relations / Ed. Robert L. Heath. Volume 2. Sage Publications, 2005. – Р. 714–716.

D. READING FOR THE MAIN IDEAS

Use the words in the box to complete the table.

E. RENDERING

1. Underline the thesis statement, the sentence that communicates the main idea of the article.

The thesis statement can briefly state the most important idea of the notion or it can simply summarize the main features of the notion.

2.Identify the main features of Publicity, according to the author of the article.

3.List the advantages of Publicity over advertising.

4.Write a paragraph summarizing all you know about the Publicity. You may refer to information given in this article or some other materials about the notion. Remember that your paragraph must have an appropriate topic sentence and a logical pattern of organization.

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Reading 2.6

MARKETING

A. PREDICTION

Read some quotes about marketing. Think over and decide what do you agree with and what you cannot agree with.

Marketing is in its basic concept, communicating a message to an audience. There is a little more to marketing than just this, however it is fundamentally communication. Marketing is about sending a message to an audience. http://www.marketingquotes.co.uk

Agree or disagree.

All businesses need to market themselves, whether this be a full on marketing campaign or just handing out business cards for referral work. The reason is because without any marketing activity, business would dry up and the business would close down. http://www.marketingquotes.co.uk

Agree or disagree.

Marketing is about pro-activity, going to your target audience to communicate your message and prompt a response. http://www.marketingquotes.co.uk

Agree or disagree.

How can you define “marketing”? Use your own words to illustrate the notion.

B. VOCABULARY AND COMPREHENSION

Guess the meaning of the words listed below. In each set of word sidentify the two words that have similar meanings to the boldfaced word on the left. Use your dictionary if necessary.

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C. READING

Read the article.

More than 40 years ago, Theodore Levitt (1960) said that the purpose of business is to make and keep customers. It might seem that his admonition is just plain common sense, not some cutting-edge revelation. On the other hand, the growing competitiveness in all industries has led many firms to believe that the purpose of business is making money. The focus on profits, ROI (return on investment), growth in sales and number of units, mergers, buyouts, stock prices, and sophisticated business school jargon has drawn attention away from the real purpose of business: to make and keep customers. No one is suggesting that profit is not important. It is critical. Without profit – and cash flow – a business “ain’t no more.” Think of the following analogy: If you claim that the purpose of business is making money, you might just as well say that the purpose of life is eating. Eating is a requisite for, not a purpose of life. The same is true of profits. In other words, profits follow people.

Giving Levitt’s perspective a marketing definition, marketing is a process by which we make and keep guests at a profit. This view confirms the marketing philosophy begun by the General Electric Company that became known as “the Marketing Concept.” The Marketing Concept views the consumer as the focal point of all marketing activities. In his classic article

“Marketing Myopia”, Levitt (1960) reinforced this belief. Before this reorientation was introduced, marketing focused on what the company could produce, promote, and sell, and it was called “the Selling Concept.” Folklore of the day maintained that Henry Ford reflected this philosophy with his claim that you could have any color of Ford, as long as it was black. This basic switch in how marketing was viewed reshaped the field of marketing to focus on the “customer is king” philosophy. From this reorientation came such concepts as the practice of segmentation, target or niche marketing, competitive advantage, product differentiation, positioning or brand building, and consumer research.

Although many people may be influenced to try a brand for the first time through the media, loyal customers are made one at a time. This appears to be a mind-boggling task. Think about a hotel that checks in 800 guests a day, a brokerage firm that serves 2000 people daily, or the hundreds of thousands who walk through the gates at Disney World every day. The managers of these operations, and thousands more like them, must have knowledge, understanding, and managerial skills to establish a standard operating performance – notice this didn’t say procedure – for customer satis-

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