English for Students of Public Relations and Advertising. Rendering. Учебное пособие

5.Polling takes place today in the Duma election.

6.The new head teacher is much better than her predecessor.

7.The international organization support emergent nations of Africa.

8.It is impossible to predict every contingency.

C. READING

Read the article.

As American public relations developed over the past 100-plus years, it has evolved to meet the changing needs of clients and to reflect changes in society. J.E. Grunig and T. Hunt have articulated four models that represent the practice of contemporary American public relations, and which also depict its evolution.

Press Agentry Model

The earliest PR model to appear was press agentry or publicity. It emerged in the late 19th century and was characterized as one-way, source- to-receiver communication. Its purpose was largely propagandistic and the truth was sometimes expendable. Press agents did little research aside from monitoring the media in which they sought to place favorable articles about their clients. The prototype practitioner of this model was the American impresario P.T. Barnum. He promoted circuses and other entertainment venues such as the singer Jenny Lind. Publicity continues to be a component of contemporary American PR and is used in sports, entertainment and product publicity, although today's practitioners are less likely to take liberties with the truth.

Public Information Model

By the early 1920s the press agentry model lost credibility with journalists, largely because they had been deceived by press agents too many times. Ivy Lee, a former journalist turned PR practitioner, recognized this problem and sought to address it by sending his Declaration of Principles to journalists. He stated that they could expect no less than factual and accurate information from his PR agency. This practice gave rise to the public information model. It continues to characterize communication as one-way, source-to-receiver, but now adhering to the truth is important. The purpose of this model is dissemination of information, and it is predicated on the idea that if the public has sufficient information and that information is truthful, then the public will believe and behave in ways that are helpful to

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the client. PR practitioners operating in this model conduct some research, but it is generally limited to readability analyses and readership studies. Today, the public information model can be found in government agencies, NGOs and in some businesses.

Two-Way Asymmetric Model

One of the limitations of the public information model is that sometimes the public failed to believe or behave in the desired fashion, even after they had been given all of the accurate and truthful information they might need about a particular topic. The model failed to take the attitudes and motivations of the public into account.

By the late 1920s and early 1930s a new model began to emerge. It took advantage of advances in psychology and public opinion polling to understand the attitudes of the public. E.L. Bernays was the leading PR practitioner to apply this model. Bernays had worked as a press agent, but began to encounter problems that could not simply be solved by providing more information to the public. As the nephew of Sigmund Freud, Bernays may have had some additional insights into the operation of the human mind, which allowed him to practice "scientific persuasion."

The two-way asymmetric model relies on two-way communication: from source to receiver and back to source. Grunig and Hunt use the term "asymmetric" to describe the effects of the communication. By this they mean that the client is seeking to change the beliefs or behavior of the target public, but is not willing to change its own beliefs or behaviors. Unlike its predecessor models, the two-way asymmetric model of PR relies heavily on research about the target publics. Such research is frequently conducted through attitude surveys and focus groups. This model is practiced extensively today by many businesses and public relations agencies.

Two-Way Symmetric Model

In the 1970s America was awash in a variety of social and political movements; all were arguing for changes to the way the country conducted itself nationally and internationally. The earlier models proved ineffective as organizations sought to counter these movements and the changes they sought. Out of these failures, the two-way symmetric model of public relations arose.

This model argued that the over-riding purpose of public relations was not persuasion, as suggested by earlier models. Instead, it posited the notion of creating mutual understanding and accommodation between organiza-

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tions and their publics as the goal of public relations. The communication in this model is two-way, and the effects are balanced. That is, both the organization and its publics need to find ways of changing to accommodate one another. This model places greater emphasis on the use of dialogue and negotiation between organizations and their publics. It also requires far more research to understand the issues that are creating contention and the publics that are affected by these issues. This model was initially practiced by businesses that were heavily regulated by the government, e.g., utilities, energy companies, etc., because they needed the approval of various publics to carry out their business activities. Today, many PR practitioners consider this model to be "emergent" and yet fully developed. There are, however, PR agencies that specialize in its practice, and clients who clearly can benefit from the practice of two-way symmetric public relations.

The Contingency Approach

So what model does the typical American PR practitioner practice when he or she shows up at the office in the morning? It all depends on the client and the nature of the client's problem or opportunity. Some practitioners are adept at moving from one model to another, others limit their practice to a specific model.

Luecke J.R. Definitions and models of public relations [Электронный ресурс] // Социальная коммуникация в современном мире. Modern Social Communication / Сборник материалов российско-американской научной школы-семинара, 14–18 июня, 2004. М., 2004. – С. 9–14

Режим доступа: http://www.russcomm.ru/eng/rca_biblio/l/luecke.shtml

D. PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT – SUPPORTING A TOPIC SENTENCE WITH ILLUSTRATION AND CONCLUSION

1. Examine the paragraph from the article and discuss the questions that follow.

Press Agentry Model

The earliest PR model to appear was press agentry or publicity. It emerged in the late 19th century and was characterized as one-way, source- to-receiver communication. Its purpose was largely propagandistic and the truth was sometimes expendable. Press agents did little research aside from monitoring the media in which they sought to place favorable articles about their clients. The prototype practitioner of this model was the American impresario P.T. Barnum. He promoted circuses and other entertainment venues such as the singer Jenny Lind. Publicity continues to be a component of contemporary American PR and is used in sports, entertainment and product

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publicity, although today's practitioners are less likely to take liberties with the truth.

1.What kind of information does the first sentence provide?

2.What does the next sentence have to do with the first sentence?

3.What does the third sentence have to do with the first sentence?

4.What does the fourth sentence have to do with the first sentence?

5.What do the sixth and the seventh sentences have to do with the first sentence?

6.Which sentence does the last sentence refer back to?

2. Give each sentence of the paragraph you have just examined the definitions stated below. Some can be used twice, while others not necessary to use:

the topic sentence of a paragraph; an example to illustrate an idea; persuasive explanations; appropriate statistics;

relevant anecdotes that support the topic sentence; the consequence of the topic sentence;

the concluding sentence, which reinforce the main idea of the paragraph.

3. While reading the new paragraph, give each sentence of the paragraph the definitions from the previous task.

Public Information Model

By the early 1920s the press agentry model lost credibility with journalists, largely because they had been deceived by press agents too many times. Ivy Lee, a former journalist turned PR practitioner, recognized this problem and sought to address it by sending his Declaration of Principles to journalists. He stated that they could expect no less than factual and accurate information from his PR agency. This practice gave rise to the public information model. It continues to characterize communication as one-way, source-to-receiver, but now adhering to the truth is important. The purpose of this model is dissemination of information, and it is predicated on the idea that if the public has sufficient information and that information is truthful, then the public will believe and behave in ways that are helpful to the client. PR practitioners operating in this model conduct some research, but it is generally limited to readability analyses and readership studies. Today, the public information model can be found in government agencies, NGOs and in some businesses.

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4. Analyze the statements based on the paragraphs of the article. Find the supporting statements in each paragraph for them.

Two-Way Asymmetric Model

a. Sometimes people lose their interest in the topic.

One of the limitations of the public information model is that sometimes the public failed to believe or behave in the desired fashion, even after they had been given all of the accurate and truthful information they might need about a particular topic. The model failed to take the attitudes and motivations of the public into account.

b. People turned out to know some extra details.

By the late 1920s and early 1930s a new model began to emerge. It took advantage of advances in psychology and public opinion polling to understand the attitudes of the public. E.L. Bernays was the leading PR practitioner to apply this model. Bernays had worked as a press agent, but began to encounter problems that could not simply be solved by providing more information to the public. As the nephew of Sigmund Freud, Bernays may have had some additional insights into the operation of the human mind, which allowed him to practice "scientific persuasion."

c. The feedback from the public is the basis of the model.

The two-way asymmetric model relies on two-way communication: from source to receiver and back to source. Grunig and Hunt use the term "asymmetric" to describe the effects of the communication. By this they mean that the client is seeking to change the beliefs or behavior of the target public, but is not willing to change its own beliefs or behaviors. Unlike its predecessor models, the two-way asymmetric model of PR relies heavily on research about the target publics. Such research is frequently conducted through attitude surveys and focus groups. This model is practiced extensively today by many businesses and public relations agencies.

Read the paragraphs of the article. Write the statements based on them. The statements should have enough support in the paragraphs.

Two-Way Symmetric Model a.

In the 1970s America was awash in a variety of social and political movements; all were arguing for changes to the way the country conducted

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itself nationally and internationally. The earlier models proved ineffective as organizations sought to counter these movements and the changes they sought. Out of these failures, the two-way symmetric model of public relations arose.

b.

This model argued that the over-riding purpose of public relations was not persuasion, as suggested by earlier models. Instead, it posited the notion of creating mutual understanding and accommodation between organizations and their publics as the goal of public relations. The communication in this model is two-way, and the effects are balanced. That is, both the organization and its publics need to find ways of changing to accommodate one another. This model places greater emphasis on the use of dialogue and negotiation between organizations and their publics. It also requires far more research to understand the issues that are creating contention and the publics that are affected by these issues.

c.

This model was initially practiced by businesses that were heavily regulated by the government, e.g., utilities, energy companies, etc., because they needed the approval of various publics to carry out their business activities. Today, many PR practitioners consider this model to be "emergent" and yet fully developed. There are, however, PR agencies that specialize in its practice, and clients who clearly can benefit from the practice of two-way symmetric public relations.

5. Which sentence is the topic one? The Contingency Approach

So what model does the typical American PR practitioner practice when he or she shows up at the office in the morning? It all depends on the client and the nature of the client's problem or opportunity. Some practitioners are adept at moving from one model to another, others limit their practice to a specific model.

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PRONUNCIATION

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Reading 2.1

LOBBYING

A. PREDICTING

Look at the title of the first text. What do you think lobbying is? Write some notes about what you expect to read in this article? Talk about your notes with a partner, and discuss what you already know about lobbying.

B. VOCABULARY AND COMPREHENSION

Use your dictionary to learn the meaning of the highlighted words. In each set of words, identify the word that has a similar meaning to the word in bold letters on the left. The first one has been done for you.

C. READING

Skim-read the text below about lobbying. How correct are your expectations?

Read it in full. Divide the text into logical parts.

Lobbying is the process through which issues and individuals are mobilized in an effort to bring about change. The end goal of most lobbying is the institutionalization of change through legislative processes; any attempt to influence specific legislation counts as lobbying. Although some may perceive any reference to lobbying as pejorative, to many it represents the fundamental right of free speech guaranteed by the First Amendment.

Lobbying is classified by the Internal Revenue Service at one of two levels: direct lobbying or indirect lobbying. The IRS distinguishes between direct and indirect lobbying based on one main criterion— whether or not there is a call to action.

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Direct lobbying involves a call to action on specific legislation. It often involves paid individuals engaging in a direct, formal communicative process with key officials and legislators. The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995, interpreted by Jack Maskell in a CRS Report for Congress, recognizes two kinds of direct lobbyists: “(1) ‘in house’ lobbyists of an organization or business–employees of that organization or business who are compensated, at least in part, to lobby on its behalf; and (2) ‘outside’ lobbyists– members of a lobbying firm, partnership, or sole proprietorship that engage in lobbying for ‘outside’ clients” (2001, p. 5). Any employed individual whose direct lobbying responsibilities constitute 20 percent or more of his or her time over a six-month period is considered a lobbyist for that organization.

A business or organization assigning lobbying duties to an employee, thus making that individual a “paid” lobbyist, must register. An outside lobbyist must be registered and identified by the lobbyist firm for each client firm, “identifying such things as the lobbyist, the client and the issues”

(Maskell, 2001, p. 5). Exceptions to registration rules are made only on the amount of expenditure.

Indirect lobbying does not involve a call to action and is sometimes known as grassroots lobbying or grassroots activism. Indirect lobbying does not require registration with the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the House, as it generally involves nonpaid laypersons coming together and engaging in public relations activities in an effort to politicize an issue or promote an agenda. The mode of contact between grassroots activists and key officials and legislators is almost always mediated. The mediation occurs in various forms: pseudo-events staged for the purpose of generating the attention of television, radio or print outlets; letter writing, either through the United States Postal Service or over electronic mail; town hall meetings and rallies; and telephone calling, petition signing, and the like. It is important to note that indirect lobbying may be facilitated by laypersons themselves or sponsoring organizations. It is also important to note that under the IRS guidelines even what may be considered initially as indirect lobbying may truly be direct lobbying if a call to action is included.

Public relations strategists engage in both direct and indirect lobbying activities to accomplish public relations goals. Public relations ethics call for practitioners to maintain strict adherence to the rules of lobbying and the avoidance of front groups. Front groups exist when grassroots campaigns and activities are implemented on behalf of undisclosed interest groups.

Hansen-Horn T.L. Lobbying // Encyclopedia of Public Relations / Ed. Robert L. Heath. Volume 1. Sage Publications, 2005. – Р. 492–493.

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