English for Historians. The Greatest Historical Milestones = Английский язык для историков. Величайшие исторические события. Учебное пособие

was a Laconic, better known as Sparta. Athens, the main city of Greece located in the middle of the state, along with areas such as Attica, Aetolia and Phocis. This part was separated from the north by practically impassable mountains and divided Athens and Thessaly, which is a major historical center nowadays.

The population of Ancient Greece can be judged by the numerous examples of art that have survived almost in its original form — a sculpture, frescoes and elements of painting. In any museum of the world, you can find the hall of ancient Greek art, where you can see a lot of images of tall, slender people with excellent physique, with light skin and dark curly hair. Historians call them the Pelasgians, the people who inhabited the Aegean Islands in the 3th millennium BC. Despite the fact that their occupations were no different from those of other ancient peoples and included cattle breeding and agriculture, their land was difficult to cultivate and required the use of special skills.

Periods of Ancient Greece. History of Development

Early Period

Followingthe finaldemiseofthe Mycenaeanwrittenculture,the last of the glorious civilizations of the Aegean bronze age, mainland Greece and the Islands off its coast entered an era called by some historians the “DarkAge”.However,strictlyspeaking,thistermrathercharacterizes the break in historical data, which relate to the time interval, which began around 1050 BC, rather than the lack of knowledge or historical experience of the then population of Greece, although the writing was lost. In fact, just at this time, during the transition to the Iron Age, began to appear political, aesthetic and literary features, then inherent in the classical Hellas. Local leaders, calling themselves pairs, was ruled by small, closely connected communities — the forerunners of Ancient Greekcity-states.The nextstageinthe developmentofpaintedceramics, which has become easier in shape, but at the same time stronger, is obvious; its appearance, as evidenced by the vessel shown on the right, acquired a new elegance, harmony and proportionality, which became the hallmarks of the later Greek art.

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Takingadvantageofvaguememoriesofthe historyofMycenaeans, Trojans and other Ancient States, wandering singers composed stories about gods and mere mortals, giving poetic imagery of Greek mythology. By the end of this period of Greek-speaking tribes borrowed the Phoenician alphabet and adapted it to their language, which allowed us to record many tales long forgotten in the oral tradition: the best among them extant — the Homeric epics 776 BC, is considered the beginning of the subsequent continuous rise of Greek culture.

Archaic Period

Inthe 8thcenturyBC,immigrantsfromancientGreece,conditioned by population growth and wealth, in search of new agricultural areas and trade opportunities, spread throughout the Mediterranean. However, Greek settlers in foreign countries, were not just subjects of cities that founded the colony, and individual, autonomous political formations. The spirit of independence that possessed the settlers, as well as the need for joint action to maintain each community, gave rise to a political unit such as the Polis. Throughout the Greek world, there were supposedly up to 700 such city-states. The foreign cultures with which Hellas came into contact during this period of expansion influenced the Greeks in a variety of ways.

The geometric painting of ceramics gave way to images of animals and plant drawings, detailed mythological scenes of the new blackfigure style of vase painting in the Eastern style. Artists working with stone, clay, wood and bronze created monumental sculptures of men. The typical archaic statue of Kuros bears clear traces of Egyptian influence, but at the same time shows the emerging desire for symmetry, lightness and realism. In the 7th century BC there are the first verily Greek temples, decorated with long friezes and Doric columns. Lyrical and elegiac poetry, deeply personal and emotionally rich, replaces the exalted poems of the past. The development of trade promotes to the widespread use of coinage invented by Lydians. On the continent at the same time, Sparta introduces a political system in which particular importance is attached to strict management and discipline, and as a result becomes the greatest and most powerful

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city-state of that period. On the other hand, Athens, is changing and systemizing laws in the interest of justice and equality, opening access to governing bodies to an increasing number of citizens and laying the democracy foundations.

Classical Period

The classical period in Ancient Greece, when art, literature, philosophy and politics prospered incredibly quickly, is limited by the time of wars with two great powers — Persia and Macedonia. The victory of the Hellenes over the Persians

gave rise to a new spirit of cooperation between different city-states and Athens, whose fleet played a decisive role, providing a favorable turning point in the fight against the socalled barbarians. The tribute that went from the allies to the Athenian Treasury in exchange for military protection provided the Athenians with the opportunity to increase their already significant wealth and guaranteed this city political, cultural and economic superiority throughout the Mediterranean. Virtually all citizens of Athens, regardless of their financial situation, were granted access to elected office and were rewarded for the performance of their duties. At the state expense, sculptors, architects

and playwrights worked on works that still remain the highest creative accomplishment of mankind. For example, the famous statue of Zeus height of 213 centimeters gives a concentrated view of the skill of the artists of Classical Greece (Ancient Greece), which reproduced in their works the human body with extraordinary dynamism. Greek philosophers, historians and experts in the natural sciences have left samples of rational theoretical analysis.

In431BC,the oldfeudbetweenAthensandSpartaresultedina war that lasted almost 30 years and ended in the defeat of the Athenians. Decades of continuous battles have led to the weakening of political

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influence in many city-states, where violent strife did not stop. Prudent and ambitious Macedonian king Philip II was able to benefit from such chaos and soon became the owner of the entire territory of Аncient Greece. Philip could not complete the Empire, he was killed, and his son Alexander ascended the throne. Just 12 years later,

Alexander the Great (Macedonian) died, but left behind a power that stretches from the Adriatic to the Mussel.

Hellenistic Period

On the ruins of Alexander’s Empire, after almost 50 years of fierce struggle for his legacy, three major powers as Macedonia, Egypt and the Ptolemaic Seleucid state emerged, stretching from modern Turkey to Afghanistan. It is striking that from the Macedonian capital Pella in the West to AI-Khanum in the East, the language, literature, political institutions, fine arts, architecture and philosophy in the cities and towns that arose as a result of the campaigns of Alexander, after his death were certainly Greek. Subsequent kings emphasized their relationship with Greece, especially with Alexander who was depicted on the Thracian silver coin with the ram horns of Zeus-Amun — God, which has roots in the East and in the West. Possessing a common language, the discovery, under the influence of constant trade contacts, preserving written texts and attracting numerous travelers, the Hellenistic world became more and more cosmopolitan.

Education and enlightenment flourished, libraries were created — among them was the Great Library of Alexandria, where there were about half a million volumes. But the Greek ruling classes refused to allow ordinary subjects into their ranks, and the vast new kingdoms everywhere were shaken by internal turmoil. Steadily weakening and impoverished Macedonia in 168 BC came under Roman rule. One by one, provincial governors in the Seleucid power declared themselves

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independent, forming many small States with a dynastic form of government. Of kings, which broke Alexander’s Empire, Bastion was still the Egypt of the Ptolemies. Cleopatra VII, the last of this family (and the only one who learned the language of the subservient population), committed suicide when the Romans won the Action. However, although Аncient Rome managed to submit the entire Mediterranean, the domination of the Latins did not mean the end of Greek influence: the Romans absorbed the culture of Аncient Greece and monumentalized the Hellenic heritage as the Greeks themselves could not.

II. Match the English equivalents with the Russian ones:

III. Answer the questions.

1.Which period is called “Dark Age”?

2.When did the ancient Greeks borrow the Phoenician alphabet?

3.How many city-states were in the Greece?

4.Who was the prudent and ambitious Macedonian king?

5.Which statue shows traces of Egyptian influence?

6.In what century did the first truly Greek temples appear?

7.How did Athens develop during the archaic period, according to the condition of laws?

8.What is the characteristic of the classical period?

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9.Where was the Great Greek Library?

10.Who committed suicide, when Romans won the war?

IV. Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions:

•laconic

•sculpture

•Pelasgians

•Polis

•provincial governor

•Empire

•heritage

V. Continue the sentences:

1.Despite the fact that their occupations ________.

2.However, strictly speaking, this term ________.

3.Taking advantage of ________.

4.The geometric painting of ceramics ________.

5.Cleopatra VII, the last of this family ________.

6.Greek philosophers, historians and experts ________.

7.Ancient historians call them the Pelasgians, the people ________.

VI. Writing. Make the written translation of the 5th part of the text (the Hellenistic period).

text 3. the roman Empire

I. Read the text.

TheRomanEmpireisthegreatestandmostpowerfulstatethe Western world has ever known. By 220 BC, Rome owned almost all of Europe, North Africa, and much of the Middle East. And the history of Rome began with rural settlements on the hills along the banks of the Tiber. Around750BCsettlementsmergedintoa powerfulcity.Timepassed,and

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the landowners turned out to be excellentsoldierswhoestablished dominance over neighboring nations, and by 264 BC — over the whole of Italy.

Overthe years,the ambitious plans of Rome became more grandiose. For new conquests created a vast army, to quickly move troops built roads. In the conquered lands the Romans

spread their language, culture and system of government. In 476 BC the Western Roman Empire collapsed, but the achievements of this civilization still have an impact on our lives.

At first Rome was ruled by kings. About 507 BC established a Republic headed by representatives of the nobility, elected citizens, and there were 500 years. In 49 BC Rome was engulfed by civil war. To restore peace, the Romans gave power to one man — Octavian, who became the first emperor of Rome. In 27 BC he received the title Augustus, which means “exalted”. Some of his successors ruled fairly, others became famous for cruelty.

During the Republic of Rome, two senior officials, consuls, ruled. The laws were passed by the Senate. Initially, all senators were from the wealthy (patrician) families. Consuls and officials were elected for one year by ordinary citizens (plebeians). Later, as a result of the struggle, the plebs got the right to veto the adopted laws. Later, however, the emperors deprived them of this right.

About one million inhabitants, there were in Rome to the 6th century,a magnificentcityadornedthe palacesofthe emperor,hisfamily members and houses of the patricians. Everywhere there were statues of emperors, triumphal arches and columns in honor of victories. In Rome therewereseveralforums —widemarketsquares,whichservedasplaces of public and political meetings, as well as theaters, libraries, baths and shoppingmalls.Richpeoplespenttheirlivesinpleasure.Lifewasnotso easyfor the poor.Theylived in a noisy,overcrowded environments,full

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of filth and stench. Their dilapidated houses often collapsed or burned, takingthe livesoftheirowners.Evenworsewerethe thousandsofslaves who were brought to Rome from the conquered lands. They were used in the most difficult and dirty jobs or trained to fight to perform and die in gladiatorial combat in the arena of the Colosseum. Every five yearsinRomeconductedcensustodeterminethe numberofcitizensand the numberof suitablefor military service.Every citizen had the right to a share in the free distribution of grain.

Romans loved entertainment. Especially chariot races, gladiator fights and hunting wild animals. Such entertainment had gathered a huge crowd,thewinnermadeamonetarybet.Gladiatorsfoughttothedeathwith wild beasts, armed with swords, nets and spears. The sword was called gladius—hencethewordgladiator.Criminalsorslavesbecamegladiators. Ifthewoundedgladiatorcouldnotcontinuethefight,thecrowdofspectators decidedwhethertoleavehimalive,raisingorloweringhisthumb.

The Romans adored exotic animals. Tigers, lions, rhinos and bears were brought to Rome from all over the world. Yet people loved the festival, particularly the procession during Cerealia, the April festival in honor of fertility goddess Ceres.

Rome was able to expand the Empire and manage it thanks to a strong army. His well-trained and armed army was the best in the world. The units were called legions. Weapons of legionnaires consisted of swords, spears and shields. At night the soldiers camped and, in the morning, had rolled it. On the borders of the Empire created permanent military fortifications.

The permanent camp of the Roman army was surrounded by a high wall with watchtowers. Inside were stables and barracks, each of which housed up to 80 soldiers. Border patrols were constantly on duty outside the camp. During the campaigns a head of each Legion carried his military badge, a sign in the form of a silver eagle (later — gold). He was a symbol of the God Jupiter.

During the First Punic War (264–241 BC) Rome and Carthage fought naval battles for Sicily. The Carthaginian General Hannibal in 218 BC invaded Rome. He crossed the Alps with 40 thousand soldiers and 37 elephants. Around 122 AD, the Roman emperor Hadrian ordered

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the construction of a powerful stone wall to protect the Northern border. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in 58–52 BC and twice invaded Britain in 55–54 BC. EmperorMarcusAureliusprotected the Empire from the invasion of foreigners on the border passing along the Danube. Foreign tribes of nomads, called barbarians,

eventuallydevastatedthe Empire. Roman Gladiators.

Автор: В. Е. Панасенко

II. Answer the question.

1.What was the first type of Roman state?

2.When did the Roman Empire collapse?

3.For what time were senators elected in Republic?

4.Who can be a gladiator?

5.In who’s honor were Cerealia?

6.How were Roman army units called?

7.What God did the eagle of a legion symbolize?

8.Who crossed the Alps at Roman history?

9.How many times Julius Caesar invaded Britain?

10.Who devastated the Roman Empire?

III. Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions:

•Republic

•plebeian

•patrician

•gladiator

•permanent camp

•Senate

•emperor

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IV. Solve the crossword.

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5

4

7

6

8

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1.A fighter who fought with his peers for the fun of the public in special arenas.

2.In honor of which goddess was the April holiday?

3.What mountains did Hannibal cross?

4.The form of government of an Ancient Rome in 509–27 BC.

5.A senior official ruling in the Roman Republic.

6.On the banks of which river were Roman settlements?

7.The name of the emperor who received the title Augustus.

8.In honor of what god was the symbol of a silver eagle carried?

9.How many inhabitants were in Rome by the 6th century BC counted?

VI. Make a summary of the text.

VII. Project activity. Choose one of three historical periods (Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece or Roman Empire) and prepare reports with presentations about chosen country.

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