Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка = Theoretical grammar of modern English. Учебно-методическое пособие

Unit 2

MORPHOLOGY

Part 1

Notion of morphemes

Morphology is one of the basic parts of grammar. It studies the structure of words, its components, its functions and formation. It also examines affixes, roots, inflections, suffixes etc. Morphology is connected with two segmental units: morphemes and words.

Morphemes are minimal meaningful units of language. Morphemes are minimal lineal meaningful units with its sound pattern (Smirnitzky). Morphemes are an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern, a constituent part of a word (Arnold).

There are a lot of classifications of this unit. According to one of them morphemes can be root-morphemes (roots) and affixal morphemes (affixes). Root is a main meaningful part of a word. Affix is a peculiar part of a word that possesses special lexico-grammatical meaning. They are usually added to the word in order to express some peculiar character. Affix comprises prefix and suffix. If the root is an obligatory part of a word, affix is not. According to functions in a word affixes can be derivational and functional or grammatical. Functional suffixes express the grammatical meaning, i. e. they create different forms of one and the same word (tall- taller-the tallest).

Speaking about morphemes it’s better to mention the allo-emic theory that is developed by descriptive linguists. According to this theory there are two types of units: allo-terms and eme-terms [17]. Eme-term implies a generalized invariant element of language represented by a special functional quality: phonemes, morphemes. Allo-term is a concrete manifestation or a variant of generalized element that depends on locations with other elements of language: allophones, allomorphs.

Allo-emic theory is based on distributional analysis, the aim of which is to examine elements in its environmental surroundings (in a text). The environment of a unit may be "right" or "left”. i. e. il-legal/meaning-ful. So for the word “legal” prefix il is a left environment, whereas suffix ful is the right environment for the word “meaning”. Such distribution is interpreted as sum of all environments.

Linguists single out three main types of distribution in the distributional analysis. They are contrastive distribution, non-contrastive distribution, and complementary distribution. The morphs are in contrastive distribution

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when their meanings (functions) are different. Such morphs constitute different morphemes.

Example:

the suffixes -(e)d and -ing in the verb-forms looked, looking.

The morphs are in non-contrastive distribution (or free alternation) when their meaning (function) is the same. Such morphs comprise "free alternants", or "free variants" of the same morpheme.

Example:

the suffixes -(e)d and -t in the verb-forms learned, learnt.

Complementary distribution is about different environments of different morphs which are combined by the same meaning (function). When two or more morphs have the same meaning and are different in their form because of different environment, these morphs are in complementary distribution and regarded as the allomorphs of the same morpheme.

E.g.: the plural allomorph -en in oxen, children, the allomorphs of the plural morpheme -s, -z, -iz.

According to distributional analysis on the morphemic level there are different types of morphemes. Taking into consideration the degree of selfdependence morphemes can be free and bound. Free morphemes can build up words whereas bound morphemes can’t. But in the morphological system there are few productive bound morphemes:

a)the segments -ing: the gerund and present participle;

b)the segments -er, -est: the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and adverbs;

c)the segments -(e)s [-z, -s, -iz]: the plural of nouns, the possessive

case of nouns, the third person singular present of verbs;

d) the segments -(e)d [-d, -t, -id]: the past and past participle of verbs.

The auxiliary word-morphemes are called semi-bound morphemes because they are used as separate elements and they form categorial unities with their notional stem-words. Taking into account formal presentation morphemes split into overt and covert. Overt morphemes are explicit morphemes that build up words while covert morpheme is interpreted as a contrastive absence of morpheme expressing a certain function. The notion of covert morpheme coincides with the notion of zero morphemes in the oppositional description of grammatical categories.

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For example: the word students consist of two overt morphemes: one lexical (root) and one grammatical expressing the plural. The word student consists of two morphemes, i.e. of the overt root and the covert (implicit) grammatical suffix of the singular.

Taking into consideration the grammatical alternation morphemes can be additive and replacive. Additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes. They are opposed to the absence of morphemes in grammatical alternation.

Example: tall+er, trust+ed.

Replacive morphemes replace each other in the paradigmatic forms.

Example:

write-wrote-written, woman-women.

Taking into account linear characteristic morphemes can be continuous and discontinuous. Continuous morpheme is a two-element grammatical unit which is determined in the analytical grammatical form comprising an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix whereas discontinuous morpheme is opposed to the common.

Example:

be ... ing – for the continuous verb forms (e.g. is playing); have ... en – for the perfect verb forms (e.g. has played); be ... en – for the passive verb forms (e.g. is played).

Part 2

Notion of word and its categorial structure

Morphemes form words that are central elements of morphology. In different books a great number of definitions of the notion word can be found.

Word is a grammatical unit that has its form and meaning. Word is a minimal unit of language that has its positional independence (Maslov). Word is a sign, a naming unit, a unit of information in the communication process, the articulate sound-symbol, the grammatically arranged combination of sound with meaning; is formed by morphemes, the uninterrupted string of morphemes, an indivisible elementary component of the lexicon of

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language, the elementary component of the sentence. Word is an autonomous unit of language, in which a particular meaning is associated with a particular sound complex and which is capable of a particular grammar employment and able to form a sentence by itself (Arnold) [3].

Words have their own categorial structure. Notional words (verbs and nouns) possess some morphemic features expressing grammatical (morphological) meanings. These features show the grammatical form of words. Grammatical form combines a whole class of words and each word of the class discloses the equivalent grammatical meaning together with its peculiar, concrete semantics. The grammatical form exposes a classification of the word on the basis of expressing a certain grammatical meaning. Categorial grammatical meanings are the most general meanings in language that are expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms.

The grammatical category is a system of disclosing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function composes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are revealed by the so-called "grammatical oppositions". The opposition may be interpreted as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is disclosed. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must have two types of features: common features and differential features. Common features are the ground of contrast, while differential characteristics disclose the function in question. Three main qualitative types of oppositions exist in grammar: "privative", "gradual", and "equipollent".

According to the number of members in contrast opposition can be binary (two members) and more than binary (ternary, quaternary and so on). Binary privative opposition is the most essential one while other oppositions can be decreased to this type.

The binary privative opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of members where one member is represented by a certain differential feature whereas the other member is represented by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called the marked or strong member; the member in which the feature is absent is called the unmarked weak.

Example: work/works.

The verb works is a marked one because of the ending s whereas the verb work is unmarked.

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The gradual opposition is formed by a contrastive group of members which are classified by the degree.

Example: charming – more charming – the most charming.

The equipollent opposition is formed by a contrastive pair or group in which the members are classified by different positive features.

Example: am – is – are.

In grammar there is such a phenomenon as oppositional reduction or oppositional substitution. The first version of the term reduction singles out the fact that the opposition is contracted by losing its formal distinctive force. The second version of the term substitution demonstrates the process by which the opposition is reduced, namely, the use of one member instead of the other.

Example: Man conquers nature.

A stylistically indifferent oppositional reduction is called neutralization. Use of the unmarked member does not transgress the expressive conventions of ordinary speech.

Example: That girl is always mocking at me.

Another type of oppositional reduction is called transposition. It occurs when a strong member of an opposition is implied in the meaning of the weak one.

Example: the sands of the desert – the plural form is used instead of the singular one.

Categorial oppositions also can be synthetical and analytical. Synthetical grammatical forms are gained by the inner morphemic composition of the word, whereas analytical grammatical forms are constructed by a combination of two words or more. One of which is a grammatical auxiliary (word-morpheme), and the other one is a word of "substantial" meaning. Synthetical grammatical forms are based on inner inflexion, outer inflexion, and suppletivity.

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Inner inflexion is implied in English in irregular verbs to form the past indefinite and past participle. Moreover, it is applied in a few nouns for the construction of the plural.

Example: give – gave – given, fly – flew – flown, woman – women.

Suppletivity is not productive as a purely morphological type of form. It is about the correlation of different roots as a means of paradigmatic differentiation. It is expressed by the grammatical interchange of word roots. Suppletivity is used in the forms of the verbs be and go, in the irregular forms of the degrees of comparison, in some forms of personal pronouns.

Examples:

be – am – are – is – was – were; go – went; little – less – least; I – me; we – us; she – her.

Suppletivity can be also perceived and accepted in paradigmatic correlations of some modal verbs, some indefinite pronouns, as well as certain nouns of peculiar categorial properties.

Examples:

can – be able; must – have (to), be may – be allowed (to); one – some; man – people; information – pieces of information.

Questions for reflection

1.What does morphology study?

2.What is a morpheme?

3.What classification of morphemes do you know?

4.What is the main idea of allo-emic theory?

5.Describe the distributional analysis

6.Give the definition of the term “word”

7.What categorial structure does the word possess?

8.Speak about grammatical categories, grammatical oppositions

Practical assignments

1) Define the type of morphemic distribution according to which the given words are grouped:

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a)burned, burnt;

b)playing, player;

c)impossible, invisible, illegal, irregular;

d)ruthful, ruthless;

e)learning, learnt;

f)worked, played;

g)adorable, invincible;

h)cells, caps;

i)formulas, formulae;

j)inexperienced, unexperienced

2)Give examples to illustrate different types of morphemes.

3)Can – i in alumni be considered an allomorph of the plural-building morpheme?

4)Do the morphemic analysis of the words on the lines of the traditional and distributional classifications.

Model: Do the morphemic analysis of the word “inseparable”.

On the lines of the traditional classification the word – inseparable is treated as a three-morpheme word consisting of the root – separ, the prefix –

inand the lexical suffix -able.

On the lines of the distributional analysis the root – separ is a bound, overt, continuous, additive morpheme; the prefix -in is bound, overt, continuous, additive; the suffix "-able" is bound, overt, continuous, additive.

a)unmistakably, childrens (books), disfigured, underspecified, surroundings, presume, kingdom, brotherhood, oxen, embodiment, outlandish;

b)hammer, students (papers), sing – sang – singing – singer, really, proficient – deficient – efficient, gooseberry, unreproved, incomparable;

c)quiet, perceptions, bell, unbelievably, glassy, uncommunicative, inexplicable, infamy;

d)inconceivable, prefigurations, southernism, adventuress, unfathomable, insufficiency, to prejudge, cranberry.

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Unit 3

GRAMMATICAL CLASSES OF WORDS

Part 1

Notion of notional and functional parts of speech

All words are classified according to suitable grammatical classes. Habitually sets of words are parts of speech. Parts of speech can be classified according three main criteria. They are semantic, formal, and functional.

The semantic criterion is about the generalized meaning, which is a peculiar feature of all the subsets of words constituting a given part of speech. This meaning is interpreted as the "categorial meaning of the part of speech". The formal criterion provides for the details of the specific inflexional and derivational (word-building) characteristics of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech. The functional criterion is about the syntactic role of words in the sentence. These three criteria are referred to meaning, form, and function.

Taking into consideration these three criteria words can be notional and functional. The notional parts of speech of the English language are the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb. The functional are the article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the interjection.

Notional parts of speech are one of the basic items in the language. Every part of speech has its own special features that help to stand out from the others sets.

Noun as a part of speech has some peculiar features. They are:

categorial meaning of substance ("thingness");

changeable forms of number and case;

substantive functions in the sentence; prepositional connections;

modification by an adjective.

Adjective also possesses some special characteristics:

categorial meaning of property (qualitative and relative);

forms of the degrees of comparison (for qualitative adjectives);

adjectival functions in the sentence (attribute to a noun, adjectival predicative).

The features of the numeral:

categorial meaning of number (cardinal and ordinal);

the narrow set of simple numerals; the specific forms of composition for compound numerals; the specific suffixal forms of derivation for ordinal numerals;

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functions of numerical attribute and numerical substantive. The features of the pronoun:

categorial meaning of indication (deixis);

the narrow sets of various status with the corresponding formal properties of categorial changeability and word building;

substantival and adjectival functions for different sets.

The features of the verb:

the categorial meaning of process;

the forms of the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood;

the function of the finite predicate for the finite verb; the mixed verbal ó other than verbal functions for the non-finite verb.

The features of the adverb:

categorial meaning of the secondary property;

the forms of the degrees of comparison for qualitative adverbs; the specific suffixal forms of derivation;

functions of various adverbial modifiers.

Functional parts of speech can be interpreted as the opposite of notional parts of speech. The article conveys the specific restriction of the substantive functions.

The preposition conveys the dependencies and interdependences of substantive referents. The conjunction conveys connections of phenomena.

The particle combines the functional words of specifying and limiting meaning.

The modal word conveys the attitude of the speaker to the reproduced situation and its parts, i.e. the functional words of probability (probably, perhaps), of qualitative evaluation (fortunately, unfortunately).

The interjection is considered to be a signal of emotions.

Each part of speech is further classified into subcategories according to semantico-functional and formal features of the constituent words.

Nouns can be proper and common, animate and inanimate, countable and uncountable, concrete and abstract.

Verbs can be fully predicative and partially predicative, transitive and intransitive, actional and statal, factive and evaluative.

Adjectives can be qualitative and relative, factive and evaluative.

Prepositions and conjunctions are also called connectives because its function is to connect notional components of the sentence. Further they can be of two main subclasses: prepositional connectives and conjunctional connectives.

The syntactico-distributional classification of words is about the study of the combinability by means of substitution testing. The testing results in

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developing the standard model of four main "positions" of notional words in the English sentence: those of the noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), adverb (D).

Pronouns are included into the corresponding positional classes as their substitutes.

Part 2

Ch. Fries classification of English word-classes

Charles Fries (1956) is one of the famous representatives of American structuralism. He replaced the traditional principle of classification of words into parts of speech with the methods of distributional analysis and substitution. The main idea of this classification is that words of the same distribution belong to the same class. So the distribution of a word is the position of a word in the sentence. To distribute the words Charles Fries implied three sentences that were called substitution frames. He considered the positions in the sentences to be sufficient for the aim of the classification of all the words.

Frame A

The performance was marvelous. Frame B

The teacher explained the rule. Frame C

The crew was here.

The position discussed first is that of the word perfomance. Words that can substitute for perfomance (e. g. food, coffee, taste, etc.) are Class 1 words. The next important items are, explained; words that can substitute for them are called Class 2 words. The next position is that of marvelous. Words that can substitute for marvelous are Class 3 words. The last position is that of here; words that can fill this position are called Class 4 words. According to the scholar, these four parts of speech contain about 67 per cent of the total instances of the vocabulary. He also distinguishes 15 groups of function words set up by the same process of substitution but on different patterns. These function words (numbering 154 in all) make up a third of the recorded material. Charles Fries does not use the traditional terminology. To understand his function words better, we shall use, where possible, their traditional names: Group A words (determiners); Group B (modal verbs); Group C (the negative particle “not”); Group D (adverbs of degree); Group E (coordinating conjunctions); Group F (prepositions); Group G (the auxiliary verb “to”); Group H (the introductory “there”); Group I (interrogative pronouns

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