Английский язык. Практический курс. Уровень Intermediate. Практикум

have a tendency to solve themselves if you ignore them for a while. Once the schedule is set, we should concentrate on what we are doing and cross off things we have already done. These lists help us not to kill time for nothing. As a result, we can study hard and play hard and we won’t think of playing when working and won’t worry about working while playing.

By doing the right thing at the right time, making good use of fragmented time, and relying on the schedule, we can save time and become an expert in time management.

Text 6. Youth culture

Most young people follow some kind of youth culture – a way for them to express their individuality.

Youth cultures are constantly changing, but it is not only the teenagers themselves who decide what the new culture will be. Politics, economics and technology have all affected teenagers' lifestyles. Since the Second World War youth cultures have been more and more influenced by the power of the music and fashion industries, which promote and recycle youth cultures whenever they can.

What about music? POP is short for "popular" and there has always been popular music. But until 1950s there wasn't a style of music just for young people. That all changed when rock and roll began. Since then, hundreds of styles and stars have come and gone.

One of the first post-war youth cultures was the «Teddy Boys» or «Teds». Large numbers of young Teds collected in coffee houses, there were fights and acts of vandalism. By 1954, the media had begun to associate the Ted youth culture with something rebel¬lious and threatening.

50s was the time when rock and roll began in America. The first big stars of it were black

– Chuck Berry, Fat Domino; they brought traditional «rhythm and blues» which was soon copied by white singers like Bill Haley, Jerry Lee Lewis and of course Elvis Presley. He became the real hero of the young, who really enjoyed his rough and dangerous music.

In the 60s Rolling Stones introduced hard, aggressive rock and roll. The other group played a mixture of rock and pop. These were the Beatles (the Fab Four from Liverpool). The Beatles were one of the first British pop groups to write their own music instead of copying American hits. Thanks to Stones and the Beatles pop became Transatlantic. Though the Beatles remained pop¬ular, most young people preferred the more rebellious sound of the Stones. Suddenly youth culture began fragmenting into many different movements.

Thus appeared different cultural groupings: Rockers – they wore leather jackets, rode motorcycles and listened «rock and roll».

Mod (modernists) – wore cheap Italian suits, rode scooters, liked a particular type of pop music. They were perhaps the first youth culture group to use drugs.

Later skinheads appeared wearing short hair and huge boots were usually regarded as violent. They were more influenced by football than by music, thus caused trouble at football matches. 1960 was a time of great economic growth in Britain, which caused a great generation boom. Although youth culture was exploited, teenagers had great freedom and political influence. In 1969, 18-years-olds were given the vote.

In the 70s Abba and the Sex Pistols groups appeared. Swe¬den's Abba worked with latest technology and their songs were popular with people from 8 to 80. They were rich, produced videos. Other superstars appeared – Elton John, David Bowie, Rod Stewart, and Queen.

In the mid 1970s, Britain was in economic recession. Unem¬ployment was high, especially for the young. Some young people felt that society had let them down, and a youth culture emerged to reflect this. Punk rock was designed to shock. The dyed, spiked hair, leather belts and plastic clothes. Punks were a mixture of art rejected conventional styles of dress. They were fans of loud, fast and tuneless music with violent lyrics.

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In the early 80s, there was a confusing mixture of youth cul¬tures. There was no universal

"look". Anything was acceptable, such as Bowie in a clown's costume or Duran Duran dressed as pirates. Youth cultures became fragmented, and the different subcultures seemed to accept each other with relative indiffer¬ence.

In 1980s young people faced a problem – where to go at night. Thus, large parties were held at a variety of locations, often in warehouses or empty buildings, where young people could dance all night. The media were saying the parties were full of drug-takers, and police raids became common. These "raves", originally called "acid house" parties" continued. The people who went to "raves" were ravers. They developed a "rave" pop-dance culture.

New styles have been also introduced under the influence of black youth culture like reggae and rap. Rap music came from the USA, and is the form of poetry which involves chanting to a strong beat.

Text 7. The importance of higher education

Education is a very important role in our lives. Everyone has been being educated since the day they were born. There is a rapidly growing demand for a higher education in the world today. Although a higher education is difficult to receive, the rewards of self-improvement, job insurance, a development of character, and social improvements are what is going to satisfy you.

Higher education develops the character. In school, students very rarely get to experience life. When the students get enrolled in college, they are first of all away from their families, so this makes them independent, and thus, they learn how to be on their own. During the college years, if the students have the right attitude, i.e., they really want to learn and study, the scope for it is unlimited. They can increase their knowledge by reading lots of books or by attending the lectures given by the experts in the fields. The college life is such that it teaches the necessary life lessons to a lot many students. Students get the opportunity to explore a lot of things and basically 'find' themselves, in true sense of the word, in these four years of college.

Higher education is a key to a better life. With globalization taking place, the job market has become even more competitive. Now, a person not only has to compete for a job with the people from his own community or country but also with the people who emigrate from other countries. So what is it that will distinguish you from all your competitors? Of course, it is your additional skills, knowledge and a college degree. It is a well-known fact that people who have a higher degree tend to earn more. According to a research done by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the average earnings become high and the level of unemployment falls, with each education level acquired. Also, people with higher education are more likely to get jobs which give lots of health benefits as well as pension benefits to the individual, in his or her old age. Thus, a college degree is the key to a better life.

Importance of Higher Education to the Society. People who are well educated and well paid, are more likely to live fulfilled lives. They make better partners, parents and employees. They believe in following the societal norms and seldom indulge in anti-social behavior. Educated people are more tolerant of other people, and thus, help in keeping the society peaceful. Higher standards of living, peace, good family life - all these things help in strengthening the country as a whole.

Studies also have shown that people who have a higher degree, which translates into a good satisfied life, are more likely to do social work and volunteering. Such behavior do benefit the society as a whole, as the underprivileged get taken care of too.

The importance of higher education can be judged from the way it benefits a person financially, emotionally, socially, as well as intellectually. Funding a college education is no more a task too, what with the various scholarships offered by the federal government, various local

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community clubs and even by the corporates. So we only have to go ahead and grab the opportunity to turn your life around by getting higher education.

Text 8. 10 reasons for studying in a foreign country

You have been thinking of studying abroad but are not sure whether it’s something for you? If you ask anybody who has studied abroad, he or she will probably tell you that it is a lifechanging experience and one of the most rewarding things he or she has ever done. Perhaps getting an overview of what you can learn from studying abroad can help you make your decision.

Opportunity to find friends for a lifetime. While studying abroad, you will not only meet a new culture, but also other international students who are far from home and looking for friends from abroad, like you are. This situation creates an excellent opportunity to build new and longlasting friendships.

Opportunity to learn a language. There is no better and more effective way to learn a language than to study in a country in which the language you would like to acquire is spoken. You will probably find learning the language very easy if you are surrounded by it.

Opportunity to widen your horizon. When you are studying abroad, you will learn things about the world that you could not have learned at home. Some months after you have returned home, you will understand the world in a much wider perspective and see it in a different way from what you thought to be possible.

Opportunity to get to know other cultures. Cultural differences are more than just differences in language, food or habits. The real differences come from somewhere beyond the immediately visible, and influence the way of understanding the world. You cannot understand it from reading a book or watching a TV show. Only if you have been in a foreign country for a longer period of time you can truly understand another culture.

Opportunity to learn about yourself. When you have studied abroad, you will return home with new ideas and perspectives about yourself and your own culture. The experience of studying abroad challenges you to reconsider your current beliefs and values, alter or strengthen them.

Opportunity to travel. Study breaks and weekends let you travel and get to know the country you are studying in. Since the studies can take place in a country completely different from your homeland, you are much closer to places you might otherwise not have had the opportunity to visit. You can organize a journey with your friends or find that somebody else, for example the students union or the university itself that organizes an interesting trip.

Opportunity to gain life experience. Being in an absolutely new environment can sometimes be scary but also very exciting. You will encounter situations that are absolutely new to you. It is an excellent possibility to learn to adapt and respond in efficient ways, discover new strengths and abilities, conquer challenges, and solve problems. These are skills that you will probably find most useful in your life.

Opportunity to study precisely what you are interested in. Studying abroad can give you study choices you would never have had at your national universities.

Opportunity to learn in a different way than you have been used to. While studying abroad you may become familiar with an entirely new way of teaching or learning. Studying abroad is likely to differ a lot from what you are used to in your school. It can be very useful to try other ways of teaching or learning as this helps to understand that there can be several ways of doing something.

Opportunity to acquire your dream job. Did you know that less than 5% of people study abroad during their life? At the same time, the world continues to become more globalised. Companies from countries around the world continue to invest in other countries, building a need for people who are able to manage in different cultures. Through the employer's eyes, a person

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who has studied abroad is independent, self-motivated, willing to pick up challenges, and able to cope with diverse problems and situations. Your experience of living and studying in a foreign country, getting to know other cultures, and learning another language can give you advantages in acquiring your dream job.

Text 9. Higher Education in Great Britain

Students in Great Britain can get higher education at Universities and Colleges of higher education. Universities offer degree courses which last for three or four years. Colleges of higher education provide vocational training (including teacher training, art, drama, music and physical education) and offer one or two year non-degree courses.

The oldest and best-known universities are located in Oxford, Cambridge, London and Edinburgh. British universities differ in the date of foundation, size, history, traditions, ways of student life and methods of teaching. They can be broadly classified into following types:

First come the ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge that date from the 13th century.

The second group of universities comprises various institutions of higher education, usually with a technical bias. These universities are also known as 'redbrick' universities. At first they catered mostly for local people and prepared students for London University degree but lately they were given the right to award their own degrees. In the mid-20th they started to accept students from all over the country. These universities have close links with local industry and they offer 'sandwich' courses, i.e. studies are interrupted by periods of work.

The third group consists of new universities founded after the Second World War. They are located in the countryside and provide accommodation for most of their students on site (hence their name 'campus' universities). They focus on relatively new academic disciplines such as social sciences and teach in small groups known as 'seminars'.

The largest teaching institution in Britain is the Open University. It was established in 1969 and it offers part-time higher education for people who can't attend regular courses and who study in their free time. The university operates like a correspondence course with books and programs on radio and TV.

Higher education in Great Britain is highly selective, i.e. entrance to British universities is via a strict selective process based on interview. After the interview a potential student (applicant) is offered a place on the basis of the results of General Certificate of Education (GCE) A-level exams. If a student does not get the proper grades, he can't take the place. Some universities, such as Oxford and Cambridge, have an entrance exam before the interview. So, not everyone in Britain with A-level qualifications gets the chance to study at a university.

There are full-time and part-time students. Full-time students spend their time studying and don’t have any other employment. Part-time students combine their studies with work. Students can get a grant. The grant covers tuition fees and some of living expenses. The amount of the grant depends on the parents’ income. If the parents don't earn much money, their children will receive a full grant, which will cover all their expenses. There are also government loans to support students but this money must be paid back.

University studying lasts three years, however medical and veterinary courses last five or six years. The academic year starts in October and ends at the beginning of July. It is divided into three terms with vacations at Christmas, a month off at Easter, and three or four months in summer. These are periods of private study.

University teaching combines lectures and tutorials, or seminars, when students meet their tutor and discuss topics in small groups. There is little continuous assessment on many courses, so the final examinations are very important. Universities offer a wide range of courses from highly

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academic to very vocational ones. Students study natural and technical sciences, history, law, medicine, foreign languages, arts, engineering, economics, etc.

After three years of studying students can get the Bachelor's degree. Students who are working for their first degree are called undergraduates. At the end of the third year of study undergraduates pass examinations and take the Bachelor’s degree. If they study arts subjects (history, languages or law) they take Bachelor of Arts (BA). Those who study sciences such as medicine, technology or agriculture get Bachelor of Science (BS). When students are awarded the degree, they become graduates. Students who obtain their Bachelor's degree can take post-graduate courses and after one or two years of studying they get Master's degree (MA or MS). The highest degree is Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which takes two or three years.

Text 10. Higher Education in United States

Higher education began in the United States in 1636, when Harvard College (established by John Harvard, English clergyman) was founded in Massachusetts. The aim was to train men for service in church and civil state. Yale College, Princeton University, Columbia University are the oldest and the most famous American higher educational institutions.

Now there are about 3,000 colleges and universities, both private and public, in the United States. Students have to pay to enter universities.

In the United States, out of the more than three million students who graduate from high school each year, about one million go on for «higher education».

Every young person who enters a higher educational institution can get financial assistance. The vast majority of students (up to 70 percent) lack the financial resources to pay tuition fees and must rely on student loans (money lent by bank on education purposes) and scholarships from their university, the federal government, or a private lender. Generally, private universities charge much higher tuition than their public counterparts, which rely on state funds to make up the difference.

Private schools are typically more expensive. Depending upon the type of school and program, annual graduate program tuition can vary from $15,000 to as high as $40,000. Note that these prices do not include living expenses (rent, room/board, etc.) or additional fees that schools add on such as «activities fees». These fees, especially room and board, can range from $6,000 to $12,000 per academic year (assuming a single student without children).

American universities and colleges are usually built as a separate complex, called 'campus', with teaching blocks, libraries, dormitories, and many other facilities grouped together on one site, often on the outskirts of the city. Some universities consist of many campuses. The University of California, for example, has 9 campuses, the biggest being Berkeley (founded in 1868), San Francisco (1873), Los Angeles (1919), Santa Barbara (1944), Santa Cruz (1965).

There are several ways to continue higher education in the USA: universities, colleges, community colleges, and technical or vocational training schools (institutions).

The university. A university in the United States usually has several different colleges in it. Each has a special subject area. There may be a college of liberal arts where humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and mathematics are taught. There may be a college of education and a college of business.

A distinctive feature of American university is its 2 levels – the separation of undergraduate from graduate school education. The first level is Undergraduate school of 4 years duration. Here the work of undergraduate students during the first 2 years (the freshman and the sophomore years

– the junior years) usually consists of broadly based studies in humanities, social sciences, applied and natural sciences. The last 2 years (the senior years) are devoted almost entirely to the major discipline.

The first 2 years are aimed at providing general education and preparing for more special studies. If all goes well, this undergraduate education culminates in a Bachelor's degree (BS or

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BA). It's usually known as first degree and may be terminal qualification but it often considered a background for further specialization, a step toward higher (advanced) degree.

The advanced degrees (Master’s degree and the PhD) can be obtained in Graduate school, which is the second level of university education. There are two levels at graduate school: the lower to obtaining the Master’s degree and upper level for the doctorate or the PhD, which is the research degree.

The graduate students work for 2 or 3 years. During that time they take courses, pass exams, do some laboratory research under a competent professor. On submitting thesis, they are awarded a Master's degree.

The four-year undergraduate institution – the college. The American college is known by various titles such as the college of liberal arts, the college of arts and sciences, the college of literature, science and arts. The college may be the central unit around which the university is organized, or it may be a separate corporate entity, independent from the university. A college does not have graduate or professional programs. If a college student completes a course of study in arts or science, he or she gets Bachelor of Arts or Science degree. If college students want to continue for a graduate or professional degree, they must go to University.

The two-year, or community college, sometimes called a technical college, a junior college, a city college, is an educational institution providing higher education and lower-level tertiary education, granting certificates and diplomas. The name derives from the fact that community colleges primarily attracted and accepted students from the local community.

From this type of college, students may enter many professions or may go to four-year colleges or universities. The program of study in the community college usually lasts two years. Not all of the subjects taught there are the usual school subjects. The community college may give courses in the regular academic subjects or subjects like dental technology, sewing and other nonacademic subjects. Not all students of the community college have a high school diploma. They may then go to a college for two more years to get the Bachelor’s degree.

The technical or vocational training schools (institutions), at which high school graduates may take courses ranging from six months to four years in duration, and learn a wide variety of technical skills, from hair styling and business accounting to computer programming.

The technical or vocational training institutions have only job training, they have no academic program. Entering this type of institution usually, it is not necessary for students to have a high school diploma. Programs may take from six months to two years and more. The technical or vocational institutions give training for work in areas such as electronics, carpentry and others.

There are no final examinations at colleges and universities, and students receive a degree if they have collected enough credits in a particular subject.

Text 11. Russian Federation

The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies about one seventh of the earth’s surface. It covers the eastern part of Europe and the northern part of Asia. Its total area is about 17 million square kilometers. The country is washed by 12 seas of 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic and the Atlantic. In the south Russia borders on China, Mongolia, Korea, Kazakhstan, Georgia and Azerbaijan. In the west, it borders on Finland, the Baltic States, Belorussia, Ukraine.

There is hardly a country in the world where such a variety of scenery and vegetation can be found. We have steppes in the south, plains and forests in the midland, tundra and taiga in the north, highlands and deserts in the east.

There are two great plains in Russia: the Great Russian Plain and the West Siberian Lowland. There are several mountain chains on the territory of the country: the Urals, the Caucasus, the Altai and others. The largest mountain chain, the Urals, separates Europe from Asia.

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There are over two million rivers in Russia. Europe’s biggest river, the Volga, flows into the Caspian Sea. The main Siberian rivers – the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena – flow from the south to the north. The Amur in the Far East flows into the Pacific Ocean.

Russia is rich in beautiful lakes. The world’s deepest lake (1.600 meters) is Lake Baikal. It is much smaller than the Baltic Sea, but there is much more water in it than in the Baltic Sea. The water in the lake is so clear that if you look down you can count the stones on the bottom.

Russia has one-sixth of the world’s forests. They are concentrated in the European north of the country, in Siberia and in the Far East.

Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources. The coal is extracted in Pechora, Donbass, Kuznetsk basins. A large amount of iron ores can be found in Kursk. Russia has deposits of copper, nickel, uranium, magnetism, zinc, lead in the mouth of the Angara River and round Baikal area and in Siberia.

The Russian Federation is a multinational state. It comprises many national districts, several autonomous republics and regions. The population of the country is about 147 million people.

Russian is the official language of the state. The national symbols of the Russian Federation are a national anthem, a white-blue-red banner and a state emblem – double-headed eagle.

Moscow is the capital and the largest political, scientific, cultural and industrial center of the country and one of the most beautiful cities on the globe. Further north, St. Petersburg is located on the Gulf of Finland and the Neva River. It is famous for its white nights. Graced by many canals, this beautiful city is often called the «Venice of the North». Once the home of the tsars, St. Petersburg is now home to 5,3 millions of Russians. Novosibirsk is the largest city in Siberia, an important traffic junction and industrial center. Vladivostok is the main base for Russian Pacific Fleet. It has a large merchant harbor and is also a center of the whaling and fishing industry. Novorossisk, Sochi, Tuapse are best known of all seaside resorts in Russia. Novgorod, Vladimir, Suzdal are ancient cities, which mirror the Russian history.

The Russian Federation is a semi-presidential republic headed by the President. The country government consists of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial. The President controls only the executive branch of power – the government, but not the Supreme Court and Federal Assembly. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces he makes treaties, enforces laws, appoints minister

The legislative power belongs to the Federal Assembly comprising two chambers: the Federation Council (upper Chamber) and the State Duma (lower Chamber). Each chamber is headed by the Speaker. The members of the Federation Council are engaged in making laws. A bill may be introduced in any chamber but it becomes a law only if it is approved by both chambers and signed by the President. The President may veto the bill. The executive power belongs to the government (the Cabinet of Ministers) headed by the Prime Minister. The judicial power belongs to the system of Courts comprising the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court and federal courts. Our country has a multiparty system.

The foreign policy of the Russian Federation is that of international cooperation, peace and friendship with all nations irrespective of their political and social system.

Text 12. The United States of America

The United States of America lies in the central part of the Northern American continent with Canada to the north, Mexico to the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Two states, Alaska and Hawaii, are separated from the continental United States: Alaska borders on northwestern Canada, and Hawaii lies in the central Pacific.

The United States of America is the fourth largest country in the world (after Russia, Canada and China). It occupies a favourable geographical position.

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The USA is divided into 50 states and the District of Columbia (the territory under the capital Washington), the seat of the national government.

The total area of the United States is about 9,4 million square kilometres, the population – over 260 million people.

The USA is a country of great differences. There are high mountains and the flattest of prairies, tropical heat and arctic cold, fertile valleys and desert areas. The highest mountains are the Rocky Mountains, the Cordillera and the Sierra Nevada. The highest peak is Mount McKinley which is located in Alaska. America’s largest rivers are the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Rio

Grande and the Columbia.

The USA is a highly developed industrial country. It is the world’s leading producer of copper and oil and the world’s second producer of iron ore and coal. Among the most important manufacturing industries are aircraft, cars, textiles, radio and television sets, furniture and paper industries.

The largest cities of the USA are New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia, Detroit, San Francisco, Washington and others.

New York is the largest city and seaport in the USA. It’s a city of skyscrapers and business center of the shipbuilding, machine building, aircraft, electronics, chemical, light and food industries. Chicago is a center of industry for the middle of the country. Chicago is a Great Central Market of the USA; it is an important center of heavy industry, the rail-road, meat-packing and grain center of the nation. Engineering occupies the leading position in the USA economy. Automobile industry with the main center of Detroit, aviation and rocket industries in San Diego, Los Angeles, Dallas, New York, Baltimore, shipbuilding industry in Boston, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Los Angeles contribute a great deal to the development of industry of means of transport and communication.

The US national flag – Stars and Stripes – is red, white and blue. 13 stripes represent the original 13 states of the US, the 50 stars represent the current number of states.

The USA is a federal presidential democratic republic. The head of the state is the President. He is elected for a term of four years and can only be reelected for one more term. The President of the state is also the head of the executive power, treaty maker, Commander-in-Chief of the army. He conducts foreign affairs, signs treaties in the name of the USA, appoints diplomats, ambassadors, cabinet members, federal judges. The President can veto any bill passed by Congress.

The legislative branch of the government is the Congress, which has 2 houses: the Senate (that represents the states) and the House of Representatives (that represents the population according to its distribution among states). The job of the Congress is to make laws. USA has 2 major political parties: the Democratic Party (its emblem is the Democratic donkey) and the Republican Party (its emblem is the Republican elephant).

The executive branch of the government puts the country’s laws into effect. The President of the United States is a member of the executive branch.

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country and the head of the judicial branch of the US government. The US Supreme Court includes a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. Its job is to enforce laws.

Text 13. Scotland

Scotland is the most northern part of the island of Great Britain. Scotland is divided into 3 regions: the Highlands, which is the most northern and the most underpopulated area with a harsh climate; the Lowlands, which is the most industrial region, with about 3 quarters of the population, and the Southern Uplands, with hills, which border on England.

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The Highlands of Scotland are among the oldest mountains in the world. They reach their highest point in Ben Nevis (1.343 m). Many valleys between the hills are filled with lakes, called lochs. The best-known is Loch Ness where as some people think a large monster lives. The most important city here is Aberdeen which is the oil centre of Scotland.

Most of the population of Scotland is concentrated in the Lowlands. Here, on the Clyde, is Glasgow, Scotland`s biggest city. Shipbuilding is one of its most important industries; other industries are iron and steel, heavy and light engineering and coal mining. It`s an industrial city and an important port in the UK.

Scotland had been an independent state and was forcefully joined into the UK after a long struggle for its independence in 1707. But the Scots kept their own legal system, religion and administration and still keep them now. Scotland has never been united with England the same way as Wales. Scotland has its own distinct character, and a Scotsman is furious if a Sassenach unwittingly uses the term England instead of Great Britain or the United Kingdom.

Hogmaney, haggis, North Sea oil, the Loch Ness Monster and whisky are just a few of the things Scotland is famous for. One of the things that people associate with Scotland is the kilt. The kilt is a relic of the time when the clan system existed in the Highlands. Everybody in the clan had the same family name, like MacDonald or MacGregor (Mac means “son of”). The clan had its own territory and was ruled by a chieftain. Each clan had its own tartan.

The Highlanders are fond of Highland Games. When the Games begin, local people march several kilometers round the villages in their district before they reach the place of the Games. Their pipers march in the front playing the bagpipes.

The Highlanders who take part in the Games are very big, strong men. At Highland Games, they do things like Throwing the Hammer, or Tossing the Caber. The hammer is very large and heavy; the caber is like a telegraph pole.

Edinburgh has been the capital since the 15th century, when its fortified castle was the centre of Scotland`s resistance to its enemies. Edinburgh is a cultural centre of Scotland. It is associated with the names of George Gorgon Byron and Walter Scott, Robert Louis Stevenson, Robert Burns and Arthur Conan Doyle. It is also associated with the world-famous Edinburgh Festival of Music and Drama.

The thistle is the Scottish national emblem. Why did the Scottish people choose this thorny plant as the national emblem of their country? The answer can be found in the history of Scotland. The legend says that thistle saved Scotland from foreign invaders many years ago. During a surprise night attack by the invaders the Scottish soldiers were awakened by the shouts of the invaders as their bare feet touched the thorns of the thistles in the field they were crossing. That was a good reason to choose the thistle as a national emblem.

Scotland also has several unique traditions in terms of dance and music. The Highland Fling is one of the oldest of the traditional Highland dances. Returning from a victorious battle, male warriors would perform the dance in celebration of their success. It was performed on a small round shield, called a targe. Most targes had a sharp spike of steel projecting from the center, so the dancers (wearing a standard kilt) learned to move with skill and dexterity to avoid injuring themselves. This dance is now performed at dance competitions and events around the world. It is no longer danced on a shield, but it is still the goal of the dancer to stay in the same spot throughout the dance. Another famous dance is the Scottish sword dance.

When it comes to music, the bagpipes are world famous, but so are a considerable number of modern Scottish bands. Music, as well as theatre, film, comedy and other arts are all celebrated annually in August in Edinburgh. The Edinburgh International Festival and Edinburgh Fringe Festival are just two of the many that take place there, drawing in huge crowds from around the world.

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Text 14. Wales

Wales is situated in the west of Britain. In the east it borders on England. It is washed by the Irish Sea in the west and the Bristol Channel in the south. The area of Wales is about 21,000 sq. km. The population is over three million.

Wales has a moderate climate, with temperatures rarely reaching ex-tremes. Wales is wetter than England, with slightly less sunshine. The coastal areas can be very warm in summer. Conditions in upland areas can be changeable at all times of the year.

North Wales and South Wales have developed independently of each other. North Wales is a land of mountains and lakes. As a wild and picturesque region, it is popular with mountainclimbers, artists and tourists. The highest mountain, Snowdon (1085 m), is situated in a beautiful National Park. South Wales is an industrialised and thickly populated area. About 70 per cent of the population of Wales lives in the south.

Wales has its own interesting culture including language, customs, holidays and music. The country is represented by the symbol of the red Welsh Dragon, which is depicted on the national flag. The flag of Wales, brought to Britain by Romans, is one of the oldest in the world.

Other symbols of the country are leeks and daffodils. These are usually worn on St. David’s Day, which is celebrated on the 1st of March. St. David is the patron saint of Wales.

Welsh is one of Celtic languages, like Scottish and Irish Gaelic. Welsh is spoken by 16 to 20 per cent of the population, although in North and West Wales 50 per cent speak the language. The Welsh Language Act of 1967 said that all official documents should be in both languages, and most road signs are printed in English and Welsh.

Since the 1960s there has been a serious attempt to revive the language. At secondary schools almost 50 per cent of all pupils learn Welsh as a first or second language. Since 1982 there has been an independent fourth TV channel broadcasting mainly in Welsh.

Welsh food is usually made from local ingredients. Some traditional dishes include laverbread (made from seaweed), bara brith (fruit cake), cawl cennin (leek stew), Welsh cakes, Welsh Rarebit, and Welsh lamb. A type of shellfish, cockles, is often served with breakfast.

In the XIII century the English king, Edward I, invaded Wales and built seventeen huge castles to control the Welsh people. He also made his son, Edward II, the Prince of Wales. Since then all the kings and queens of England have given their eldest sons the title Prince of Wales. Prince Charles became the twenty-first Prince of Wales.

Cardiff, a large city in the south, was chosen as the capital of Wales in 1955, mainly because of its size. It is situated near the mouth of the river Taff. Cardiff is known for its light industry, ship-repairing and making wagons, vehicles and electric gear. It’s an important industrial city and port, administrative and educational centre.

The Welsh people, especially in rural areas, are fond of folk music, singing, poetry and drama. Welsh literature is one of the oldest in Europe. There are many choirs in Wales, the standard of singing is high and the love of good music is wide-spread. Now there is growing movement of revival of Welsh culture from which sprang the revival of Eisteddfod. Eisteddfod in the form of gathering of bards had occasionally been held in the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. Now Eisteddfod is a festival of Welsh culture. It includes competitions in prose, poetry and singing.

Text 15. Northern Ireland

Northern Ireland, integral part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, situated in the northeastern portion of the island of Ireland. Northern Ireland is bounded on the north and northeast by the North Channel, on the southeast by the Irish Sea, and on the south and west by the Republic of Ireland. It includes Rathlin Island in the North Channel and several smaller offshore islands. Northern Ireland is also known as Ulster, because it comprises

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