Theory of English Phonetics = Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. Учебно-методическое пособие

A list of sources used

multicultural-london-english-in-the-british-media.html (дата об- ращения: 24.10.2023).

12. Kircher R., Fox S.Attitudes towards Multicultural London English: implications for attitude theory and language planning // Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 2019. Vol. 40. URL: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23535968_ Linguistic_and_Economic_Characteristics_of_Francophone_ Minorities_in_Canada_A_Comparison_of_Ontario_and_New_ Brunswick?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7InBhZ2UiOiJqb3VybmFsIiwi cHJldmlvdXNQYWdlIjoicHVibGljYXRpb24iLCJzZWN0aW9u IjoiYXJ0aWNsZXMiLCJwb3NpdGlvbiI6InBhZ2VDb250ZW50 In19 (дата обращения: 24.10.2023).

13. Roberts M. Master English Pronunciation & Intonation Like A Pro. 2022. 207 p.

14. Underhill A. Sound Foundations. Learning and Teaching Pronunciation. Macmillan Education, 2005. 207 p.

15. Walker A. Teaching the Pronunciation of English as a Lingua Franca. Oxford University Press, 2021. URL: https://www. academia.edu/20331461/Teaching_the_Pronunciation_of_ English_as_a_Lingua_Franca_Reducing_Skepticism_and_ Increasing_Practicality (дата обращения: 30.08.2023).

16. Wells J. C. Pinning down Estuary English: Abstract for a lecture. Sweden: Lund, April 1998. URL: https://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/ home/estuary/est-lund.htm (дата обращения: 19.10.2023).

51

GLOSSARY

Accent – is stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs in the stepping head without a downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented. Stress in such words is usually weakened because there is no change of pitch accompanying them.

Accommodation – adaptation of vowels to different adjacent sounds, e.g. in /tu:/ /t/ is labialized under the influence of /u:/ and /u:/ is a little bit advanced under the influence of /t/.

Acoustic phonetics – a branch of phonetics which deals with physical properties of sounds.

Adjacent sounds – sounds that follow each other.

Affricates – the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating organs: in their articulation the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly opens into a narrowing.

Allophones – variants or members of one and the same phoneme, which never occur in identical positions.

Allophonictranscription–thistypeoftranscriptionisbasedontheprinciple “one symbol per allophone”. This transcription provides a special sign for each variant of each phoneme. A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as a unity of all its allophones. The symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually placed between square brackets [ ].

Alternation of sounds – changes of the sounds in different derivatives from the same root or in different grammatical forms of the same word or in different allomorphs of the same morpheme.

Alveolar consonants – articulated by the tip of the tongue, which makes a complete obstruction with the alveoles.

Alveoles, orAlveoli – depressions in the upper jaw, which socket the upper teeth.

Apex – the tip of the tongue.

Apical – articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge.

52

Glossary

Articulate – to pronounce audibly and distinctly.

Articulation – coordinated movements of speech organs in the process of speech.

Articulatory phonetics – the description and classification of speech sounds articulated by the speech apparatus.

Aspiration – a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of /p, t, k/ in initial position.

Assimilation – the process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.

Attitudinal function – this function is performed by intonation, when the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying, by intonation alone, e.g.: low fall – lack of interest: ˎHave you? high fall – surprise:

ˋIs she?

Back vowels – vowels, which are formed with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the junction between the hard and the soft parts of the palate.

Back advanced vowels – vowels, which are formed when the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity but is slightly advanced and the central part of it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate.

Back secondary focus – it is formed by raising the back part of the tongue towards the soft palate (velarisation); e.g. /w/ and “dark” [1] are pronounced with the back secondary foci.

Bicentral – formed with two places of articulation.

Bicentral consonants – consonants articulated with two centres of complete or incomplete obstruction.

Backlingual consonants (velar) – sounds produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate.

Bilabial – articulated by the upper and the lower lip.

Body of the tongue – the whole of it.

Breath – the process of blowing the air out of the mouth or nasal cavity through the bronchi and the wind-pipe, or blowing it into the lungs. Bronchi – two main divisions of the trachea, leading into the lungs.

Bulk (body) – the whole.

Cacuminal – articulated by the tip and the blade of the tongue raised against the back slope of the teeth ridge.

53

THEORY OF ENGLISH PHONETICS | ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯФОНЕТИКААНГЛИЙСКОГОЯЗЫКА

Cardinals – an international standard set of artificial vowel sounds which, according to D. Jones, can be produced with the bulk of the tongue at the four cardinal points in the front part of the mouth cavity and at the four cardinal points in the back part of the mouth cavity.

Central vowels – vowels formed when the front part of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate.

Centring diphthongs – diphthongs which glide to central /ə/. Checked vowels – short stressed vowels pronounced without any decrease in the force of articulation and immediately followed by consonants.

Classification – the method which studies common properties of the investigated phenomena and which is used to arrange them systematically.

Classify – to arrange the common properties of (phonetic) phenomena according to their typical characteristics.

Clear sound – the sound which is made softer due to additional articulatory work.

Close transition – articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the first stage of the second sound takes place already during the medial stage of the first sound.

Coalescent – bilateral assimilation of two sounds when in the result they give a new sound.

Combinatory allophones – variants of a phoneme which appear in speech as a result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of joining sounds together.

Communicative centre – a word or a group of words which conveys the most important point of communication in the sense-group or sentence.

Communicative types – the types of sentences which are differentiated according to the type of intonation. V. A. Vassilyev gives the following communicative types: 1. Categoric and non-categoric statements. 2. Disjunctive questions. 3. Commands. 4. Exclamations. 5. Special questions. 6.Alternative questions. 7. General questions and 8. Requests. Comparative phonetics – branch of phonetics which studies the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages.

54

Glossary

Complementary distribution – arrangement of allophones of one and the same phoneme, which occurs in different contexts, but in a definite set of them.

Complete assimilation – assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully coincides with the other.

Consonant – a sound of noise, which is formed by a complete or incomplete obstruction.

Constitutive function of speech sounds – the function to constitute the material forms of morphemes, words and sentences.

Constrictive fricative consonants – consonant sounds in the articulation of which the air passage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction.

Constrictive sonorants (sonants) – consonant sounds made with an incomplete obstruction, but the narrowing for the air passage is not wide enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely; on the other hand it’s wide enough for tone prevailing over noise.

Contact – a closure made by the organs of speech.

Dark sound – the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work the raising of the back part of the tongue to the soft palate (back secondary focus).

Dental consonants – consonants produced with the tip and the blade of the tongue placed against the upper front teeth. (Sounds [t, d, n] before [θ – ð]).

Descending scale – gradual lowering of the voice pitch.

Descriptive phonetics – studies the contemporary phonetic system of a language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic units of this language.

Devoice – to pronounce with the vocal cords switched out. Voiced consonants are gradually devoiced in the terminal position and under the influence of the adjacent voiceless consonant (not so much as in the Russian language).

Diachronic approach – analysis of the phenomena which refer to different periods of development.

Dialectology – the branch of phonetics which studies the dialectal differences in pronunciation.

55

THEORY OF ENGLISH PHONETICS | ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯФОНЕТИКААНГЛИЙСКОГОЯЗЫКА

Diaphone – allophone of one and the same phoneme, pronounced by different people.

Diaphragm – that part of the power mechanism which separates the cavity of the chest from the abdominal cavity.

Diction – a way of speaking. The selection and control of words to express ideas (command of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, affective word order, etc.).

Digraph – combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme. Diphthong – a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus and a glide. The first element of a diphthong is more loud and distinct; the glide which shows the direction of the quality change is very weak.

Diphthongization – slight shifting of the organs of speech position within the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly – the tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound during its articulation.

Diphthongoids – vowels in the pronunciation of which the articulation is slightly changing but the difference between the starting point and the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs.

Dissimilation – substitution of one sound for another, similar in tamber but different articulatorily: пролубь, лыцарь instead of прорубь, ры-

царь.

Distinctive function of speech sounds – it is manifested most conspicuously in minimal pairs when the opposition of speech sounds is the only phonetic means of distinguishing one member of that pair from the other.

Distributional analysis – this method helps to establish the distribution of speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.

Disyllabic – consisting of two syllables.

Dorsal consonants – pronounced with the blade of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge.

Dorsum of the tongue – the middle and back parts of the tongue. Double stress – two stresses within one and the same word. Drawl – to pronounce slowly.

56

Glossary

Duration – length.

Dynamic accent – force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.

Edges of the tongue – the rims of the tongue.

Elision – dropping off of a sound in rapid or careless speech. Emphasis – combination of the expressive means of the language to single out emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences. Emphatic – that which refers to emphasis.

Enclitic – unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word or syllable.

Exhalation – breathing the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity. Exhale – to breathe the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity. Experimental phonetics – the branch of phonetics which studies phonetic phenomena through observation and with the help of different apparatus and devices.

Expiration – breathing the air out.

Explosion (plosion) – noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a complete obstruction.

Fall – lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.

Fixed word accent – this type of accent is characterized by the fixed position, of stress.

Flapped consonants – articulated by a single tap of the tip of the tongue against the teethridge. For example: [r] in sorry, very. Flat narrowing – passage for the flow of air, which is more or less flat. The sounds If, v/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing.

Flow of air – the stream of air.

Focus (pi. foci) – the place in the mouth cavity, in which the obstruction (complete or incomplete) is formed in the articulation of a consonant. Front secondary focus is formed by the middle part of the tongue raised against the hard palate. Back secondary focus is formed by the back part of the tongue raised against the soft palate. Forelingual – articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the upper teeth or the teeth ridge.

Fortis consonants – voiceless consonants, which are pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with lenis consonants).

57

THEORY OF ENGLISH PHONETICS | ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯФОНЕТИКААНГЛИЙСКОГОЯЗЫКА

Free accentual variants – they are variants of individual pronunciation – interidiolectal variants. E.g. ‘hospliable, hos’ pitable.

Free variations – intraidiolectal and interidiolectal variations which are spontaneous, unintentional, non-functional, non-distinctive.

Free word accent – the type of accent which is characterized by the free accidence of the word accent; in different words of the language different syllables can be stressed – the first, the second, the third. Free word accent has two subtypes: a) constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: ‘wonder,’wonderfully and b) shifting, which changes its place: сад, садовод.

Fricative consonants – produced by friction of the flow of air through the narrowing formed by articulatory organs.

Frictionless – produced without any audible friction.

Frictionless continuants – the term may be used in reference to constrictive sonants /w, r, j/, which are pronounced with little noise and can be prolonged or continued.

Front of the tongue – the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade and the middle of the tongue in the terminology of English phoneticians. Front-retracted vowels – vowels in the production of which the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity but slightly retracted, and the part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front is raised.

Front vowels – vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves forward and its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate. Fully voiced – consonants pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating from the first to the last stage of their articulation.

Functional – phonological, connected with differentiatory function. Functional phonetics – the branch of phonetics which studies the purely linguistic aspect of speech sounds.

Functions of a phoneme – in speech a phoneme performs three functions: 1. distinctive, 2. constitutive and 3. recognitive; they are inseparable.

General American (G. A.) – the most widespread type of educated American speech.

General phonetics – analysis, description, and comparison of phonetic phenomena in different languages.

58

Glossary

Glide – that part of a diphthong which constitutes its additional element, the full articulation of which is not accomplished.

Glottal sound – when the glottis is narrowed during exhalation, the air passes out of the mouth cavity and consonant sound /h/ is pronounced. Glottal stop – a speech sound made by completely closing and then opening the glottis, which reminds a slight cough and may take the place of [t] between vowel sounds or may be used before a vowel sound.

Glottis – the space between the vocal cords, which produce the sound of the voice by movements in which this space is repeatedly opened and closed.

Grapheme – an orthographic unit with which a phoneme can be correlated.

Hard palate – the bony front part of the top of the mouth.

Head – stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the unstressed syllables.

Height – the width of the resonating cavity in the articulation of vowels. Height of the tongue – the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised and which determines the level of the raised bulk of the tongue: high, mid, or low.

Historical assimilation – sound changes, which are the result of the historical development of the language.

Historical phonetics – that branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic components on the diachronic level; it is a part of the history of a language, which studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws.

Hold – the second stage of a single sound articulation.

Homographs – words that are similar in orthography but different in pronunciation and meaning.

Homophones – words that are similar in pronunciation but different in orthography and meaning.

Idiolect – the individual speech of a member of a language community. 1diophone – one and the same speech sound which is pronounced differently in different idiolects.

Inhalation – breathing the air in.

Initial phase – the first phase of a sound articulation.

59

THEORY OF ENGLISH PHONETICS | ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКАЯФОНЕТИКААНГЛИЙСКОГОЯЗЫКА

Instrumental phonetics – different techniques and devices used in experimental phonetics.

Interdental articulation – articulation characterized by the interdental; position of the tip of the tongue in articulating /θ, ð/. In speech these sounds are often pronounced as dental, with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper teeth.

Interdental sounds – consonant sounds produced when the tip of the tongue is in the position between the upper and lower teeth. Intermittent closure – this type of closure is formed when the tip of the tongue is rapidly tapping against the teethridge as in the articulation of trilled, or rolled /р/.

Intonation – a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody. Intonation group – an actualized sense group.

Intrusive sounds – alien to the word, but pronounced in actual speech for the purpose of linking.

Jaws – parts of the mouth, which bear teeth and by means of which the mouth can be opened and closed.

Junction – the joining of two sounds or words.

Juncture – the place, where two sounds or words are joined together. Kinetic – relating to motion, producing motion.

Kymograph – the apparatus used to record speech sounds graphically. Kymograms help to ascertain the quality of various sounds.

Labial sounds – consonant sounds articulated by the lips.

Labialization – lip rounding.

Labialized vowels – vowels produced with a more or less lip rounding.

Larynx – an organ of the respiratory tract above the windpipe. It consists of an elaborate arrangement of cartilage and muscles and contains a pair of vocal cords.

Lateral – having to do with the sides of the tongue.

Lateral sounds – sounds in the articulation of which the air passages (or a passage) are formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time the contact is made by the tip of the tongue pressed against the teethridge.

60