Арктическая политика России. Учебное пособие

according to the Russian Constitution of 1993, constituent entities of the Russian Federation received the right to have international and foreign economic relations. Then in 1995 the law ‘On international agreements of the Russian Federation’ was adopted that included a consent procedure between the center and regions in cases when provisions of international agreements addressed authority of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. In 1999 the federal law ‘On coordination of international and foreign economic relations of constituent entities of the Russian Federation’ identified the right of regions to develop international foreign economic relations with foreign regions and participate in activities of international organizations, within the framework of which there are platforms for regional cooperation. Further actions of the federal center were aiming at streamlining of the established model of interaction between regions and the federal center: in 2001 the Concept of Cross-Border Cooperation in the Russian Federation was adopted and in 2003 the Council of Heads of Federal Entities was created that was intended to represent interests of regions at the federal level.

RepresentativeOfficesoftheMinistryofForeignAffairsaredesigned to assist interregional cooperation and represent interests of federal authorities, respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Russian Federation.

At the level of multilateral international interaction, Russia’s Arctic regions eagerly participate in the activities of leading Arctic interregional organization in the Arctic (for instance, the Barents Euro-Arc- tic Region and the Northern Forum). This format of cooperation not only strengthens the interregional ties with other countries’ regions but also consolidates cooperation among the Russian regions: sharing positive experiences and the best practices, spreading information about achievements.

Interregional cooperation has been especially strong in the Barents Eu- ro-ArcticRegion(BarentsRegion–BEAR).Thisregiontodayincludesthe countiesFinnmark,TromsandNordland(Norway),theregionsofLapland andKainuuandthemunicipalityofOulu(Finland),theprovincesNorrbotten and Västerbotteny (Sweden), Murmanskaya and Arkhangelskaya

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Oblasts, Nenetsky Autonomous Okrug, and the republics of Komi and Karelia (Russia). The cooperation in the region is unique because it has two levels: cooperation at the level of ministries (the Barents Euro-Arc- tic Council – BEAC) and contacts directly between the regions’ heads (Regional Council). The work of all divisions, including a group of representativesofsmallindigenouscommunities,iscoordinatedbytheBarents Secretariat. The work consists in establishing ‘horizontal contacts and connections across borders among organizations and people living in the regions’. The project of cooperation among the BEAR territories has spawned a number of successful network-based initiatives (for instance, The Barents Protected Area Network (BPAN), Barents Forest Sector Network (BFSN), etc.). Participants interact in networks in different thematic areas.

There is also another Arctic organization promoting interregional cooperation – the Northern Forum, whose present members include Akureyri (Iceland), Alaska (USA), Chukotka autonomous okrug (Russia), Gangwon-do (Republic of Korea), Kamchatka Krai (Russia), KhabarovskKrai(Russia),Khanty-MansiAutonomousOblast(Russia), Krasnoyarsk Krai (Russia), Lapland (Finland), Nenets Autonomous Okrug (Russia), Sakha Republic (Yakutia) (Russia) and Yamalo-Ne- nets Autonomous Okrug (Russia). The Northern Forum is registered as a non-profit organization, while also being accredited at the UN as an NGO and as an observer at the Arctic Council.

Suggestions for further readings

Lagutina M. Russia’s involvement in regional governance in the Arctic // Lessons from the Arctic: The Role of Regional Government in International Affairs / ed. by T. S. Axworthy, S. French and E. Tsui. – Ulyanovsk : Mosaic Press, 2020.

Maksimova, D. D. The Experience of the Russian-Canadian Interregional Cooperation in the Arctic, Canadian yearbook, 9 (2015), accessed April 26, 2017. – 2017. URL: http://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/opyt-rossiysko-kanadsko- go-mezhregionalnogo-vzaimodeystviya-v-arktike.

Potentsial rossiyskoy Arktiki dlya mejdunarodnogo sotrudnichestva. [The potential of the Russian Arctic for international cooperation], Report of RIAC, 2015, accessed April 18 2017. – № 17. – 2017. URL: http://arctic-rf.ru/uploads/ document/attachment/16/_________________.pdf.

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Questions for discussion

1.What are the specific features of the Russian model of interregional interaction?

2.What are the difficulties in the development of external relations of the Russian Arctic regions?

3.What is the level of development of interregional relations among the regions of the AZRF?

4.Is there competition between the Russian regions of the AZRF?

5.What is the level of cross-border cooperation among the regions of the ASRF?

Topic 12. The Arctic Science Diplomacy of Russia

Abstract. Science and Diplomacy. Science Diplomacy as a tool of ‘soft power’ of the state. Russia’s approaches to the definition of the term the ‘Arc- tic Science Diplomacy’ (ASD). Priorities for international scientific cooperation of the Russian Federation in the Arctic. Russia’s polar research in- frastructure in the AZRF. The strategic motives and driving forces of ASD, the stakeholders and key forms of Russia’s ASD. The key platforms of ASD: national platforms (the international forum ‘The Arctic: The Territory of Di- alogue’ and ‘The Arctic: Present and Future’) and international platforms (‘Arctic Frontiers’, ‘Polar Circle’, and ‘Arctic Science Summit Week’) and organizationssuchastheInter-AgencyStandingCommittee(IASC),theIn- ternational Arctic Social Sciences Association (IASSA), and the Association of Polar Early Career Scientists (APECS).

There is no generally accepted approach to defining Arctic science diplomacy (ASD) in Russian official discourse. Nevertheless, international scientific cooperation, ‘development of science and technology in the interests of Arctic exploration’, is one of the priorities of Russia’s state policy in the Arctic.

In 2010, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge identified three areas of ‘science diplomacy’:

1.ScienceinDiplomacy:informingforeignpolicyobjectiveswithscientific advice.

2.DiplomacyforScience:facilitatinginternationalsciencecooperation.

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3. Science for Diplomacy: using science cooperation to improve international relations between countries.

Arctic science diplomacy (ASD)7 is a relatively new topic in Russian academic and political circles. There is neither a clear definition of the concept nor a consensus on the stakeholders, tools, and activities of sciencediplomacy.Meanwhile,theRussianexpertsnote3mainapproaches in Russia in relation to the concept of ASD:

1)the first approach considers ASD as a soft power tool of regional players. Science diplomacy helps to promote a positive image of specific states and to gain access to non-state resources that are usually inaccessible to state actors;

2)the second technical/instrumentalist approach to ASD involves the use of academic and scientific-technical cooperation between regions, countries, and societies to create reliable international partnerships on a non-ideological basis and to solve generally significant world problems;

3)the third direction considers ASD as a form of new diplomacy, the strategic goal of which is not only to build friendly relations and cooperationwithallArcticcountries,butalsotodevelopinternationalscientific cooperation and improve the international image of Russia.

Russia has had a strong research infrastructure for polar research since Soviet times, which serves as the basis for modern Russian ASD. At present more than 500 organizations in Russia are engaged in Arctic research, located in 50 regions of the country. They include universities, institutes and scientific centers of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), sectoral institutes, research centers of corporations operating in the AZRF, public organizations, etc.

In September 2020, it was decided to create a Scientific Arctic Council under the State Commission to coordinate scientific research in this

area.

Russia has a well-developed icebreaker fleet (more than 40 nuclear and diesel icebreakers). Various Russian organizations also have about

7 See in details: Gutenev M., Sergunin A. Russia’s arctic science diplomacy: theory and practice // International Organisations Research Journal. – 2022. – Vol. 17. – № 3. – P. 155–174.

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twenty research vessels capable of conducting work in polar conditions, althoughmostofthemarealreadyobsoleteandinneedofmodernization or replacement. Both icebreakers and research vessels are actively used for international maritime expeditions in the Arctic, which makes Russia the undisputed leader in this field.

The country’s scientific potential in the field of Arctic research is also determined by the presence of polar stations. Currently there are 5 meteorological, 2 aerological, 1 hydrological, 26 marine hydrometeorological, 4 united, 3 aerometeorological, 4 biological, 7 research and 2 geophysical stations. New polar stations are being built in the AZRF, which are specifically designed to house international teams of scientists.

Russia created a number of platforms for developing international scientific cooperation in the Arctic. The USSR/Russia co-founded the International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) in 1990. As part of IASC, MoscowlaunchedtheInternationalScienceInitiativeintheRussianArc- tic (ISIRA) in 1993. ISIRA is a joint Russian and international initiative to promote scientific cooperation and sustainable development in the Russian Arctic.

According to the official site8, ISIRA´s objectives include:

1.Initiating planning of multinational research programs that address specific key scientific problems in the Russian Arctic.

2.Providing a forum for linking on-going or planned bilateral projects.

3.Facilitating improved scientific access to the Russian Arctic.

4.Advising on funding and implementation of projects.

The Activities include:

5.Reporting on international science activities and initiatives in the Russian Arctic.

6.Providing up-to-date information on policies, regulations and logistics within the Russian Arctic.

7.Supporting Russian and international early career scientists.

8 See in details. URL: https://iasc.info/our-work/isira.

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Deliverables are:

–Comprehensive national inventories of past, ongoing and planned international and bilateral science projects and initiatives in the Russian Arctic.

–Reports of annual ISIRA meetings, including presentations of IASC supported early career scientists.

–Information on scientific access to the Russian Arctic.

The composition of ISIRA included participants in bilateral projects in the Russian Arctic; Russia was represented by one representative each from the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI) – the leading center for polar research, and from state authorities.

Another important platform of the Russian ASD is the International Arctic Forum ‘Arctic – Territory of Dialogue’, which has been held since 2010.Anotherforum,‘TheArctic:PresentandFuture’,organizedbytheAssociationofPolarExplorerssince2011,isgraduallygainingprestigeaswell.

Russia makes active use of various international platforms in its ASD. The most important of these is the Arctic Council with its working and expert groups.

Suggestions for further readings

ArcticCouncil.AgreementonEnhancingInternationalArcticScientificCooperation. – Fairbanks, Alaska, 2017. – 11 May. URL: https://oaarchive.arcticcouncil.org/handle/11374/1916.

Gutenev, M., Sergunin A. Russia’s arctic science diplomacy: theory and practice // International Organisations Research Journal. – 2022. – Vol. 17. – № 3. URL: https://iorj.hse.ru/en/2022-17-3/779636923.html.

Gutenev, M. and Boyko E. Science diplomacy as a tool for reducing conflict in the Arctic // IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 539 012041. – 2020.

Krasnyak, O. National Styles in Science, Diplomacy, and Science Diplomacy. – Leiden ; Boston ; Brill, 2018.

VanLangenhove,L.,SoeteL.,PiagetE.ScienceDiplomacyintheAgeofWar. May 5th. – 2022. URL: https://policylabs.frontiersin.org/content/science-dip- lomacy-in-the-age-of-war.

Devyatkin,P.EnvironmentalDétente:U.S.–RussiaArcticsciencediplomacy through political tensions. The Polar Journal. Published online: 23 Nov 2022. – 2022. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2022.2137091.

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Questions for discussion

1.What does ‘Arctic Science Diplomacy (ASD)’ mean?

2.What are the key actors of ASD of Russia?

3.What is the impact of the Ukrainian crisis (2014 and 2022) on the Arctic Science Diplomacy? Compare the consequences of the crisis of 2014 and 2022.

4.What are the prospects of the Arctic scientific cooperation in the conditions of the crisis between Russia and the Western countries?

5.Can ASD help Russia and the Arctic countries of the West overcome the

consequences of the 2022 crisis?

List of questions for the exam

1.WhatistheArctic?Varioustheoreticalapproachestothedefinition of ‘the Arctic’.

2.Different definitions of the territory in Russia’s north: ‘Arctic zone of the Russian Federation’ (AZRF), ‘Russian Arctic’, ‘Russian north’, ‘the Far North’, and ‘Zapolyarye’.

3.Theoretical debate on the Arctic: value-based approach and interest-based approach.

4.Theoretical debate on the Arctic: securitization approach and desecuritized (technocratic/instrumentalist) approach.

5.Whatwerethemaineventsandfeaturesofthe‘initialperiod’(11th– 17th centuries) of the development of the Russian Arctic?

6.What were the main events and features of the ‘imperial period’ (17th – early 20th centuries) of the development of the Russian Arctic?

7.Whatwerethemaineventsandfeaturesofthe‘theSovietperiod’of the development of the Russian Arctic?

8.The crisis of the 1990s and its consequences in the Russian Arctic.

9.Russia’s expeditions and their role in the study and exploration of the Arctic (at the student’s choice).

10.History of the Northern Sea Route’s development.

11.History of the Russian icebreaker fleet.

12.The Arctic during the Great Patriotic War (II World War).

13.‘Mikhail Gorbachev’s Speech in Murmansk (1987) and its geopolitical consequences both for Russia and the Arctic cooperation.

14.Key characteristics of the AZRF: territory, climate conditions, population, ethnic diversity, urbanization, infrastructure, resources, etc.

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15.ThemainmotivationsforRussia’sactivepolicyintheArcticatthe present stage.

16.Domestic dimension of the Russian Arctic policy: the evolution ofthemainnationalinterestsofRussiaintheArcticfromtheearly2000s to the present.

17.What are the key Russia’s motivations, strategic priorities and new challenges for Russia’s domestic policy in the Arctic?

18.‘Pillar zones’ (‘opornye zony’) concept.

19.The comparative analysis of the ‘Fundamentals of Russian Federation State Policy in the Arctic through 2020 and Beyond’ (2008) and ‘Fundamentals of Russian Federation State Policy in the Arctic to 2035’ (2020): what is common and different?

20.The Arctic as a ‘resource base’ of Russia.

21.Key factors of changing priorities in Russia’s energy policy in the Arctic in the second decade of the 21st century.

22.Activities of Major Russian Oil and Gas Companies in the AZRF (at the student’s choice).

23.Activities of Major European Oil and Gas Companies in the AZRF (at the student’s choice).

24.Activities of Major Asian Russian Oil and Gas Companies in the AZRF (at the student’s choice).

25.Social tendencies of the AZRF’s development.

26.Migration issues in the AZRF.

27.SpecificfeaturesanddevelopmentalcharacteristicsoftheRussian Arctic’s economy.

28.Sustainable development of the AZRF.

29.Themaincomponentsof‘humansecurity’intheAZRF:economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security.

30.Key threats to ‘human security’ in the AZRF.

31.The national policy goals in the sphere of ensuring defense and protection of the Russian Federation in the Arctic.

32.Re-establishment of Russian military presence in the Arctic: key reasons and trends.

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33.Russia’ssecurityconcernsintheArcticregion.RussiaandNATO in the Arctic.

34.The‘Arcticcomponent’intheConceptoftheRF’sForeignPolicy (2008, 2013, 2016). The goals and priorities of the state Arctic policy of Russia in the sphere of international cooperation.

35.Russia’s participation in international regional organizations in the Arctic.

36.The Russian Chairmanship of the Arctic Council in 2021–2023.

37.Russia and Norway in the Arctic.

38.Russia and Canada in the Arctic.

39.Russia and the United States in the Arctic.

40.Russia and Denmark in the Arctic.

41.Russia and Finland in the Arctic.

42.Russia and Sweden in the Arctic.

43.Russia and Iceland in the Arctic.

44.Russia and European (France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, the United Kingdom and Italy) observers to the AC in the Arctic.

45.Russia and Asian (China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Republic of Singapore and the Republic of India) observers to the AC in the Arctic.

46.Three stages in the recent history of international cooperation among Arctic regions.

47.The Russian model of interaction between regions and the federal center in the sphere of international and foreign economic relations.

48.Interregional cooperation in the AZRF.

49.Cooperation at the level of ministries (the Barents Euro-Arctic Council–BEAC) and contacts directly between the regions’ heads (Regional Council).

50.Russian regions in the Northern Forum.

51.Northern Dimension’s Arctic Window project.

52.Kolarctic Cross Border Cooperation.

53.Russia’s approaches to the definition of the term the ‘Arctic Science Diplomacy’ (ASD).

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54.Priorities for international scientific cooperation of the Russian Federation in the Arctic.

55.Russia’s polar research infrastructure in the AZRF.

56.The strategic motives and driving forces of ASD, the stakeholders and key forms of Russia’s ASD.

57.Scientific cooperation between Russia and other Artic state (on the student’s choice).

58.Scientific cooperation between Russia and non-Arctic state (on the student’s choice).

59.What is the impact of the Ukrainian crisis (2014 and 2022) on the Arctic Science Diplomacy? Compare the consequences of the crisis of 2014 and 2022.

60.What are the prospects of the Arctic scientific cooperation in the conditions of the crisis between Russia and the Western countries?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Required reading

EnergyoftheRussianArctic.IdealsandRealities/ed.byValeryI.Salygin.– Palgrave, 2022.

Lagutina, M. L. Russia’sArcticPolicyintheTwenty-FirstCentury.National and International Dimensions. – Lanham : The Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group, 2019.

Lagutina,M.L.Russia’sArcticpolicies:concepts,domesticandinternational priorities // The Polar Journal. – 2021. – Vol. 11, iss. 1. – P. 118–135.

Laruelle, M. Russia’s Arctic strategies and the future of the Far North /

M.E. Sharpe. – Armonk ; New York ; London, 2014.

Laruelle,M.Russia’sArcticPolicy:APowerStrategyandItsLimits,Russie//

Nei. Visions. Ifri. – 2020. – № 117.

RussianPolicyintheArctic:InternationalAspects[Text]:rep.atXXIIApr.In- tern.Acad.Conf.onEconomicandSocialDevelopment,Moscow,April13–30, 2021 / S. A. Karaganov [et al] ; Nat. Res. Univ. Higher School of Economics. — Moscow : Higher School of Economics Publ. House, 2021.

Sergunin, A. and Konyshev V. Russia in the Arctic. Hard or Soft Power? – Stuttgart : Ibidem-Verlag, 2016. URL: https://publications.hse.ru/pubs/share/ folder/ji6kpl7az1/201496371.pdf.

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