Арктическая политика России. Учебное пособие

time when Canada was chairing the Arctic Council. The Russian delegation at that Council meeting was traditionally represented by leading companies: PJSC Rosneft, PAO Sovcomflot, the Russian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, etc.

Russia chaired the Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC) from 2007 till 2009 and later in 2015–2017. It should be noted that the priority agenda of two Russian Chairmanships in the BEAC was similar, but, as with the Arctic Council, a stronger political element can be observed in the activity of Russia in this organization.

Russia is an active member of the Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region (CPAR), a parliamentary body comprising delegations appointed by the national parliaments of the Arctic states and the European Parliament.

Overthelastyears Russiahas been anactivememberofthe University of the Arctic (UArctic), an international network combining over 180 universities,collegesandresearchinstitutionsfrom16countriesoftheworld with the purpose of coordination, sharing knowledge and experience exchange in research of the North. From the very beginning two Russian universities, the Northern (Arctic) Federal University named after M.V.LomonosovinArkhangelskandtheAmmosovNorth-EasternFed- eral University in Yakutsk, have been members of the organization. Both universities contribute immensely to scientific research of the region and learnfromtheexperienceofothercountriesinthesphereofArcticdevelopment. The Saint Petersburg State University joined this organization in 2012 and since then has been actively engaged in all UArctic events.

RussiaisapermanentparticipantoftheannualArcticCircleAssembly, a unique venue for discussing relevant issues of sustainable development of the region by politicians, business community, experts, researchers and representatives of Arctic indigenous peoples.

Suggestions for further readings

Arctic. Council Russian Chairmanship 2021–2023. Responsible governance for a sustainable Arctic, May 20. Retrieved. – 2021. – May 22. URL: https:// arctic-council.org/en/about/russian-chairmanship-2/.

Chater A. Explaining Russia’s Relationship with the Arctic Council // International Organisations Research Journal. – 2016. – Vol. 11. – № 4. – P. 205–223 (in Russian and English).

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Foundations of the Russian Federation State Policy in the Arctic for the Period up to 2035, approved on 5 March 2020. URL: https://dnnlgwick.blob.core. windows.net/portals/0/NWCDepartments/Russia%20Maritime%20Studies%20Institute/ArcticPolicyFoundations2035_English_FINAL_21July2020. pdf?sr=b&si=DNNFileManagerPolicy&sig=DSkBpDNhHsgjOAvPILTRoxIfV%2FO02gR81NJSokwx2EM%3D.

Koivurova T. IsItPossibletoContinueCooperatingwithRussiaintheArctic Council? // Georgetown Journal of International Affairs. – 2022. – June 29. URL: https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2022/06/29/is-it-possible-to-continue-co- operating-with-russia-in-the-arctic-council/.

Konyshev, V., & Sergunin A. International organizations and Arctic cooperation. International Organizations Research Journal. – 2011. – № 6 (3). – P. 27–36.

Lagutina, M. L. Russia’sArcticPolicyintheTwenty-FirstCentury.National and International Dimensions. – Lanham : The Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group, 2019.

SerguninA.RussiaandtheArcticCouncil:TowardaNewCooperativeAgenda? // Turning Points of World Transformation. – 2022. – P. 117–138. URL: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-19-1758-5_8.

The Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation. Approved by Pre- sidentoftheRussianFederationVladimirPutinonNovember30.–2016.URL: https://www.rusemb.org.uk/rp_insight/.

Vyakhireva, N. On Pause: Dialogue with Russia in the Arctic. Discussion club ‘Valdai’. – 20.04.2022. URL: https://valdaiclub.com/a/highlights/on- pause-dialogue-with-russia-in-the-arctic-/.

Questions for discussion

1.What are the goals of the state Arctic policy of Russia in the sphere of international cooperation?

2.What are the main motivations for Russia’s active policy in the Arctic at the present stage?

3.What regional organizations of the Arctic is a priority for Russia?

4.WhatweretheprioritiesoftheRussianchairmanshipoftheArcticCouncil in 2004–2006?

5.What аre the priorities of the Russian chairmanship of the Arctic Council in 2021–2023?

6.Is It Possible to Continue Cooperating without Russia in the Arctic Council?

7.What non-governmental organizations does Russia cooperate with in the Arctic?

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Research task

Make a comparative analysis of the three editions of the Concept of the RF’sForeignPolicy(2008,2013,2016)onthe‘Arcticcomponent’(tabl3).

Topic 9. Russia and other Artic states4

Abstract. ‘Arctic Five’ and ‘Arctic Eight’ in Russia’s foreign policy. Russia and Norway. Russia and Canada. Russia and the United States. Russia and Denmark. Russia and Finland. Russia and Sweden. Russia and Iceland. Russia’s territorial disputes with the Arctic countries.

In terms ofinter-states ties in the region,approximately till 2010 RussiafollowedtherouteofdevelopinginternationalcontactsonlywithArctic states (‘Arctic Five’ and ‘Arctic Eight’) in its foreign policy.

ThebilateralformatofArcticcooperationwasmostadverselyaffected bythecrisisinRussia’srelationswiththeWestafter2014.Asaresult,inthe ‘Fundamentals-2020’wecanseethepointsabout‘attemptsbysomefor- eignstatestorevisethebasicprovisionsofinternationaltreatiesregulating economic and other activities in the Arctic…’ and ‘building up of foreign states’militarypresenceintheArcticandincreasingconflictpotentialin theregion’.Inspiteofthis,atthisstageRussiacontinuestodevelopbilateral ties with all Arctic and subarctic countries, but with a different level of intensity. It is possible to name Norway, Canada and Finland among the most active Arctic partners of Russia today. Unfortunately, relations withthelatterwereaffectedbythepoliticalcrisisof2022andthebilateral relations with NATO countries suffered to a greater extent.

4 See in details: Lagutina, M. L. Russia’s Arctic policies: concepts, domestic and international priorities // The Polar Journal. – 2021. – Vol. 11, iss. 1. – P. 118–135.

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Suggestions for further readings

Lagutina, M. L. Russia’sArcticPolicyintheTwenty-FirstCentury.National and International Dimensions. – Lanham : The Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group, 2019.

Sukhankin, S. Russia and the Arctic in an Era of Strategic Competition: Selected Writings. Trent University: Peterborough. – Ontario, Canada, 2021.

Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs Kingdom of Denmark Strategy for the Arctic 2011–2020. – 2011. URL: https://naalakkersuisut.gl/~/media/Nanoq/ Images/Udenrigsdirektoratet/100295_Arktis_Rapport_UK_210x270_Final_ Web.pdf.

Government of Canada. Arctic and Northern Policy Framework International Chapter. – 2019. URL: https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/156286741 5721/1562867459588.

Government of Finland. Finland’s Strategy for Arctic Policy. – 2021. URL: https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/163247/ VN_2021_55.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

Government of Iceland. Iceland’s Policy on Matters Concerning the Arctic Region Parliamentary Resolution 25/151. – 2021. URL: https://www.go- vernment.is/library/01-Ministries/Ministry-for-Foreign-Affairs/PDF-skjol/ Arctic%20Policy_WEB.pdf.

Government of Norway. The Norwegian Government’s Arctic Policy. People, Opportunities and Norwegian Interests in the Arctic. – 2021. URL: https:// www.regjeringen.no/en/dokumenter/arctic_policy/id2830120/.

GovernmentofSwedenSweden’sStrategyfortheArcticRegion.–2020.URL: https://www.government.se/information-material/2020/11/swedens-strategy- for-the-arctic-region-2020/#:~:text=Sweden’s per cent20per.

The Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation. Approved by Pre- sidentoftheRussianFederationVladimirPutinonNovember30.–2016.URL: https://www.rusemb.org.uk/rp_insight/.

White House. The United States’ National Strategy for the Arctic Region. – 2022. URL: https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/ 2022/10/07/fact-sheet-the-united-states-national-strategy-for-the-arctic-re- gion/.

Questions for discussion

1.With which Arctic countries does Russia have the most active bilateral relations?

2.In what areas are Russia’s bilateral relations with the Arctic countries mainly developing?

3.What challenges can be named in Russia’s relations with the Arctic countries before 2014?

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4.How did the 2014 crisis affect Russia’s bilateral ties with Arctic countries?

5.How did the 2022 crisis affect Russia’s bilateral ties with Arctic countries?

Research task

Based on the analysis of the strategic documents, write an essay on the topic (app. 3–5 pages, Times New Roman, 12 pt., 1,5 spacing):

1.Russia in Canada’s Strategy for the Arctic Region.

2.Russia in Denmark Strategy for the Arctic.

3.Russia in Iceland’s Arctic Policy.

4.Russia in Finland’s Strategy for the Arctic Region.

5.Russia in the Norwegian Government’s Arctic Policy.

6.Russia in Sweden’s Strategy for the Arctic Region.

7.Russia in the USA’s Strategy in the Arctic.

Guidelines For Analysis:

–Is Russia often mentioned in the text?

–How is Russia defined in the text: a partner, a rival?

–What areas of cooperation are noted in the text?

–What formats of cooperation with Russia are specified in the text?

Topic 10. Russia and non-Arctic states5

Abstract. Russia’s position on non-Arctic countries. Russia and European (France, Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, the United Kingdom and Italy) and Asian (China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Republic of Singapore

5 See in details: Lagutina M. L., Casella P. B., Giannattasio A. R. C. BRICS in polar regions: Brazil’s interests and prospects // Bulletin of St. Petersburg StateUniversity.Internationalrelations.–2020.–Vol.13,iss.3.–P.326–340 ; Lagutina M., Eremina N. and Gadal S. European Arctic Policy: Interests of the Non-Arctic States and the EU // The Handbook of the Arctic. A Broad and Comprehensive Overview. Edition : Springer Nature. – Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan, 2022. – P. 1–26 ; Lagutina M., Leksyutina Y. (2019). BRICS countries’ strategies in the Arctic and the prospects for consolidated BRICS agenda in the Arctic // Polar Journal. – 2019. – June. – Vol. 9, iss. 1. Special iss. The Asian View on Polar Research. – P. 45–63.URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/2154 896X.2019.1618559.

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and the Republic of India) observers to the AC in the Arctic. Main priorities in Russia’s approach to cooperation with non-Arctic states. BRICS’ pros- pects in the Arctic.

The ‘Fundamentals-2020’ suggest ‘active involvement of the Arctic and non-regional states in mutually beneficial economic cooperation in the AZRF’. However, Russia’s position on non-Arctic countries is ambiguous. On one hand, Russia is open for cooperation with non-Arctic players: Russia is interested in energy cooperation with German, French, Italian, Chinese, Indian and other foreign companies that are affluent in expertise. Russia needs modern technologies and ready to cooperate with non-Arctic countries which are prepared to invest their financial resources into the development of the AZRF. Besides that, Russia needs non-Arctic partners in development the North Sea Route. On the other hand, Russia is one of the countries that at the same time are wary of involving non-Arctic players in Arctic affairs, as the Arctic has been and remains a territory of strategic interests from the point of view of Russia’s national security, where the Northern Fleet and military infrastructure facilitiesarebased,aswellasstrategicallyimportantresourcesarelocated.

Russia together with Canada until recently were strongly against non-Arctic states as permanent observers, since they were seeking to maintainthestrongpositionsoftheArctic‘Five’andtheestablishedsystem of international cooperation. In recent years Russia has been changing its attitude with regard to participation of non-Arctic states in Arctic activities,consideringseveralofthemaspotentialpartnersandinvestors. Currently, a different tendency is observed, a very pragmatic one. As far as the European non-Arctic states are concerned, Russia is the most actively and successfully cooperating with France, Italy and Germany, which is due, in particular, to traditionally close bilateral ties with these countriesasawhole.Meanwhile,after2014,Russia’sprioritiesinfinding new partners in the Arctic shifted towards Asian countries.

It is interesting to note that the interaction of the so-called ‘group of RICcountries’(Russia,IndiaandChina)intheArctichaspromptedthe BRICS structure to include oceanic and polar research in the agenda.

Among BRICS countries only Russia is an Arctic country, China and India are the Arctic council observers since 2013. While Brazil

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demonstrates some general interest in the Arctic issues and in getting an observer status in the Arctic Council sometime in future, South Africa seems to be absolutely disinterested in the Arctic at present. However, being so different in their polar identity and in the level of involvement in the polar affairs, these five countries on several occasions discussed plans to cooperate on polar issues in the framework of BRICS grouping.

The discussion on the ocean and polar cooperation started at the 3rd Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Ministerial Meeting in October 2015inRussia.BRICScountriesadoptedthe‘MoscowDeclaration’and defined the guidelines for their collaborative research and development andoutlinedthenewinitiativesamongstwhichtheyoutlinedthescience and technology cooperation on oceans and polar regions.

InJuly2018the1st Meeting of the BRICS Working group on Ocean and Polar Science and Technology tookplaceinBrasilia(Brazil).Theadopted joint statement pointed out that ‘the five BRICS countries cover every ocean in the world and are very much engaged in developing ocean and polar science and technology’. The countries also agreed:

–to jointly define priority cooperation areas;

–toformulaterecommendationsonthemethodofworkaswellason the next steps to be worked on;

–toidentifypriorityareasonoceanandpolarscienceandtechnology for subsequent BRICS STI Framework Program calls for proposals;

–and to make relevant recommendations for other BRICS groups. Participants initiated the so-called BRICS expeditions.

Suggestions for further readings

EU Arctic Policy. European External Action Service (EEAS). – 2021. URL: https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage/20956/arc- tic-short-introduction_en.

Foundations of the Russian Federation State Policy in the Arctic for the Period up to 2035, approved on 5 March 2020. URL: https://dnnlgwick.blob.core. windows.net/portals/0/NWCDepartments/Russia%20Maritime%20Studies%20Institute/ArcticPolicyFoundations2035_English_FINAL_21July2020. pdf?sr=b&si=DNNFileManagerPolicy&sig=DSkBpDNhHsgjOAvPILTRoxIfV%2FO02gR81NJSokwx2EM%3D.

Lagutina, M. L. Russia’sArcticPolicyintheTwenty-FirstCentury.National and International Dimensions. – Lanham : The Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group, 2019.

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Lagutina M. L., Casella P. B., Giannattasio A. R. C. BRICS in polar regions: Brazil’sinterests and prospects // Bulletin of St.Petersburg State University. International relations. – 2020. – Vol. 13, iss. 3. – P. 326–340.

Lagutina M. L., Casella P. B., Giannattasio A. R. C. Dea-ling with the sorcerer’s apprentice dilemma in polar international public authorities: BRICS’ interestsandBrazilianprospectsformixedgovernancestructuresintheArcticandin Antarctica // Challenges and Development Prospects within BRICS countries / eds. P. B. Casella, E. de P. Bueno, W. S. Kunzli. – San Paulo : Editora D’Placido, 2021. – P. 43–77.

Lagutina M., Eremina N. and Gadal S. European Arctic Policy: Interests of the Non-Arctic States and the EU // The Handbook of the Arctic. A Broad and Comprehensive Overview. Edition: Springer Nature. Publisher: Palgrave Macmillan. – 2022. – P. 1–26.

Lagutina M., Leksyutina Y. BRICS countries’ strategies in the Arctic and the prospects for consolidated BRICS agenda in the Arctic // Polar Journal, June 2019. – 2019.– Vol. 9, iss. 1. Special iss. The Asian View on Polar Research. – P. 45–63. URL: https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2019.1618559.

Leksyutina Y. Russia’s cooperation with Asian observers to the Arctic Council // The Polar Journal, 2021, accessed March 28. – 2021. URL: https://doi.or g/10.1080/2154896X.2021.1892833.

Sukhankin, S. Russia and the Arctic in an Era of Strategic Competition: Selected Writings. Trent University: Peterborough. – Ontario, Canada, 2021.

Questions for discussion

1.What are the interests of non-Arctic countries in the AZRF?

2.What was Russia’s position on non-Arctic countries before 2010?

3.What are the reasons for the change in Russia’s position with regard to non-Arctic countries and their participation in Arctic cooperation?

4.With which of the European non-Arctic countries does Russia cooperate most actively? Why?

5.With which of the Asia non-Arctic countries does it cooperate most actively? Why?

6.Canwespeakabouta‘pivottotheEast’intheArcticpolicyofRussiaafter the crisis of 2022?

Research task

Make a comparative analysis of the level of cooperation between Russia and European/Asian non-Arctic states (table 4).

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Topic 11. Russian regions in the Arctic international cooperation6

Abstract. Three stages in the recent history of international cooperation among Arctic regions. The Russian model of interaction between regions and the federal center in the sphere of international and foreign economic rela- tions. Interregional cooperation. Cooperation at the level of ministries (the Barents Euro-Arctic Council – BEAC) and contacts directly between the regions’ heads (Regional Council).

Russia’s Arctic regions eagerly participate in Arctic cooperation initiatives, both multilateral and bilateral, acting as independent subjects of Arctic politics. International activity of the Russia’s Arctic regions is one of the most important components of current foreign policy of the Russian Federation on the Arctic direction.

6 See in details: Lagutina, M. Russia’s involvement in regional governance in the Arctic // Lessons from the Arctic: The Role of Regional Government in International Affairs / ed. by T. S. Axworthy, S. French and E. Tsui. – Ulyanovsk : Mosaic Press, 2020.

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According to the RIAC’s experts, one can identify three stages in the recent history of international cooperation among Arctic regions:

–Firststage(1992–1997):theestablishmentofinternationalcontacts with several areas of focus at once: a growing number of foreign partner regions; a growing number of regional administrative organs involved in collaborative projects; the establishment of initial international contacts by the Russian Arctic municipalities – urban okrugs and municipal rayons – situated beyond the Arctic Circle.

–Second stage (1998–2002): the strengthening of international contacts of Russia’s Arctic regions after the adoption of basic regional laws concerning these activities; active participation in the process of providing expert evaluations of, and concluding, international contracts financed from regional budgets; the circumpolar interregional cooperation beginning to yield first economic results.

–Third stage (2002 – present): an appreciable expansion of international cooperation in many northern regions and its diversification in many spheres. The following vital objectives are set at this period: to constructively revise international ties of Russia’s Arctic regions in order to ensure their dynamic sustainable development and promote through them progressive structural transformations and technological modernization; to ensure that their optimization results in a radical increase in the types of export, the number of exporting firms, and the volume of foreign investment; to open new markets of technological and institutional innovations that would take hold in local communities.

Over a period of the 1990–2000s the Russian model of interaction was formed between regions and the federal center in the sphere of international and foreign economic relations. The Russian model actually underwent a certain transformation within these 30 years from a model of granting extended rights to regions in their international activity at the beginning of the 1990s to a more centralized model of the 2000s. Nevertheless, at the turn of the 20th and 21st century the necessary legal basis wasformedthatenabledRussianregionsonequaltermswithprovincesof western countries to participate in various international projects, attract foreign investments and develop cross-border relations. In particular,

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