Арктическая политика России. Учебное пособие

The Federation Council has a special Council for the Arctic and Antarctic, responsible for legislation related to all actions in the Arctic. Besides,thereisapermanentgroupofexpertsandadvisorsoperatingunderthe aegis of the Federation Council of the RF’s Federal Assembly. These two organs stay in close contact with each other within the framework of the strategy chosen by the RF.

The Duma (the lower house of Russia’s Federal Assembly) does not have a dedicated Arctic task force, and so far, it has been successful only in the area of the northerners’ social protection.

At a regional level, in 2014–2015 the so-called Polar Commissions un- der the aegis of the governments of the RF’s constituents were set up. Such Commissions are already in place in St.Petersburg, Murmanskaya oblast, Krasnoyarsky kray. Their main objective is addressing at a local levelgoalssetbythefederalgovernmentwithrelationtothedevelopment of the Arctic. Such an organ is a standing consultative and advisory interagency commission ensuring interaction between the region’s executive organs, territorial organs of federal executive bodies, organs of local self-government, and organizations for the purpose of implementation of the RF’s national policy in the Arctic. The Commission’s activities consist in meetings of its members, with experts and interested parties featured as speakers.

Special ‘Arctic’ agencies responsible for carrying out the national policies in the Arctic zone were established in several regions (for example, Murmanskaya oblast’s, the Sakha Republic (Yakutia), Krasnoyarsky kray).

The Russian Ministry of Economic Development at a meeting of the presidium of the State Commission in March 2016 proposed the new mechanism of regional development – the so-called ‘pillar zones’. The pillar zones project is designed to plan and ensure a comprehensive development of the Arctic territories for the purpose of achieving Russia’s strategic goals in the Arctic utilizing in a well-coordinated manner the entire range of functioning instruments and mechanisms of state support. Industrial development is also facilitated by the formation of clusters that the state helps create in the Arctic. Presently there are 8 pillar zones in 8 constituent entities of the AZRF.

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1.The Kola (Kolskaya) Pillar Zone. Its advantages include a convenient geographic position, unfreezing ports that operate year-round, and mineral resources, as well as relatively developed infrastructures in the areas of transportation, electric power, industry, education and the academe.

2.The Arkhangelskaya Pillar Zone is characterized by a convenient geographic position, coupled with a well-developed railway infrastructure and a year-round port (in November-March – open only for icebreakers or vessels with an icebreaker support).

3.The Nenetskaya Pillar Zone includes several promising industry sectors, first of all connected with the development of the Northern Sea Route and mining.

4.The Vorkutinskaya Pillar Zone includes the Vorkuta Municipality urban okrug (MO GO Vorkuta) in the Komi Republic.

5.One of the most promising pillar zones, the Yamalo-Nenetskaya Zone can provide a stable freight traffic for the ports along the Northern Sea Route.

6.The specialty of the Taimyro-Turukhanskaya Pillar Zone in the Krasnoyarsky kray is mining and industry. This zone includes one of the Arctic’s large agglomerations – the Norilsky Industrial rayon (with its center in the town of Norilsk).

7.The Severo-Yakutskaya Pillar Zone in the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) with the center in the port of Tikski, one of the main hubs in the eastern section of the Northern Sea Route.

8.TheChukotskayaPillarZone,hometotheChukotskyautonomous okrug’s several systemically important transportation infrastructure facilities,whichcanbecomemaingrowthareasintheeasternsectionofthe Northern Sea Route and the AZRF.

Suggestions for further readings

Baev, P. K. Russia’s Ambivalent Status-Quo: Revisionist Policies in the Arctic // Arctic Review on Law and Politics. – 2018. – Vol. 9. – P. 408–424.

Blakkisrud, H. Governing the Arctic: The Russian State Commission for ArcticDevelopmentandtheForgingofaNewDomesticArcticPolicyAgenda// Arctic Review on Law and Politics. – 2019. – Vol. 10. – P. 190–216.

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Foundations of the Russian Federation’s State Policy In The Arctic Until 2020 And Beyond, approved by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev on Sep- tember18th.–2008.URL:https://icr.arcticportal.org/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=1791%3.

Foundations of the Russian Federation State Policy in the Arctic for the Period up to 2035, approved on 5 March 2020. URL: https://dnnlgwick.blob.core. windows.net/portals/0/NWCDepartments/Russia%20Maritime%20Studies%20Institute/ArcticPolicyFoundations2035_English_FINAL_21July2020. pdf?sr=b&si=DNNFileManagerPolicy&sig=DSkBpDNhHsgjOAvPILTRoxIfV%2FO02gR81NJSokwx2EM%3D.

Heininen, L., Sergunin A. and Yarovoy G. Russian Strategies in the Arctic: Avoiding a New Cold War. Valdai Discussion Club, Grantees Report. – Moscow, 2014. – September.

Klimenko, E. Russia’s new Arctic policy document signals continuity rather than change, SIPRI. – 2020. – 6 April. URL: https://sipri.org/commen- tary/essay/2020/russias-new-arctic-policy-document-signals-continuity-rat- her-change.

Lagutina, M. L. Russia’sArcticPolicyintheTwenty-FirstCentury.National and International Dimensions. – Lanham : The Rowman and Littlefield Publishing Group, 2019.

Lagutina,M.L.Russia’sArcticpolicies:concepts,domesticandinternational priorities // The Polar Journal. – 2021. – Vol. 11. – Iss. 1. P. 118–135.

Laruelle,M.Russia’sArcticPolicy:APowerStrategyandItsLimits,Russie// Nei. Visions. Ifri. – 2020. – March. – № 117.

Sergunin, A. and Konyshev, V. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy: between hard and soft power? // The Polar Journal. – 2014. – Vol. 4. – № 1.

Questions for discussion

1.What are the results (achievements and difficulties) of the ‘Fundamen- tals-2008’?

2.What is new in the ‘Fundamentals-2020’?

3.What are the key differences between two editions of the Fundamentals 2008 and 2020?

4.IsthereaneedtocreateaseparateMinistryfortheArcticwithinthestructure of the Government of the Russian Federation?

5.What are the key domestic difficulties of the AZRF development?

6.What is the key idea of the new mechanism of regional development – the so-called ‘pillar zones’?

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Research task

Make a comparative analysis of the ‘Fundamentals of Russian FederationStatePolicyintheArcticthrough2020andBeyond’(2008)and‘FundamentalsofRussianFederationStatePolicyintheArcticto2035’(2020). Write an essay app. 3–5 pages (Times New Roman, 12pt, 1,5 spacing).

The criteria for the comparative analysis:

–The primary national interests of the Russian Federation in the Arctic.

–The primary threats to national security in the Arctic.

–The primary challenges to national security in the Arctic.

–The goals of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic.

–The primary trends for implementation of the State Policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic.

Topic 5. Russia’s Energy Policy in the Arctic2

Abstract. The Arctic as a ‘resource base’ of Russia. Modern trends, chal- lenges, and opportunities of the energy dimension of the Russian Arctic’s de- velopment. Key factors of changing priorities in Russia’s energy policy in the Arcticintheseconddecadeofthe21stcentury.Theinternal(specialclimatic conditions of the region, lack of Russian technologies for hydrocarbon pro- duction in Arctic conditions, insufficient level of infrastructure development, etc.) and external factors (falling oil prices, US sanctions and EU restrictive measures, ‘energy transition’, etc.), influencing the change in the priorities of Russia’s energy policy in the Arctic at the current stage. The shift from a ‘resource-based approach’ to reviewing Arctic territories as quite promising ones subject to innovations on the principles of sustainable development.

2 See in details: Lagutina, M. L. and Konyshev V. N. Rethinking Russia’s EnergyPolicyintheArctic//EnergyoftheRussianArctic.IdealsandRealities/ ed. by V. I. Salygin. Palgrave. – 2022. – P. 109–122 ; Lagutina, M. L. and Kony- shev V. N. Activities of Major Oil and Gas Companies in the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation // Energy of the Russian Arctic. Ideals and Realities / ed. by V. I. Salygin. Palgrave. – 2022. – P. 141–161.

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Inthe2000s,attentiontotheArcticbegantogrow,bothinRussiaand globally, mainly due to the increased interest in the region’s resources. As a result, the resource development was declared one of the long-term strategic objectives of the Arctic policy of the Russian Federation, which was enshrined in strategic documents.

According to ‘The Fundamentals of The Russian Federation’s State Policy in The Arctic Until 2020 And Beyond’, published in 2008, the main goal of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the Arctic in the field of socio-economic development was to expand the resource base of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation (AZRF), which can largely meettheneedsofRussiainhydrocarbonresources,aquaticbiologicalresources, and other types of strategic raw materials. Thus, this document defined the Arctic as a resource base of the Russian Federation. Without any doubts, this approach was consistent with Russia’s policy of those years, which had an ‘energy dimension’. However, this approach was sharply criticized both by representatives of the Arctic regions of the Russian Arctic and by some Russian experts who pointed out that it is unacceptable and even dangerous to limit the development of the Arctic exclusively by resource extraction. This approach does not correspond to the unique potential of the region and the national interests of Russia in general, since the AZRF has not only a rich variety of resources but also a unique socio-cultural community. This narrow ‘resource’ approach could make the AZRF a peripheral territory of Russia with a high level of population outflow to other regions, meaning that, consequently, the security of Russia’s northern borders may be threatened.

In the new edition of the ‘The Fundamentals of The Russian Federa- tion’s State Policy in The Arctic Until 2035’, published in March 2020, the Arctic is also defined as the main resource base for national economic growth, as it was in ‘The Fundamentals – 2008’, but it is no longer the firstpriority.Instead,thisdocumentprimarilyfocusesonthesustainable socio-economic development of the region, as well as on improving the living standards of the population of the Russian Arctic.

The wealth of natural resources is still one of the AZRF’s main competitive advantages and the most essential guarantee of its continuing exploration and development.

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The Arctic is divided into the shelf and the mainland. The mainland part of the AZRF has been developed for a long time (since the 1960s), while the development of the Arctic seas is difficult. The Arctic Zone of Russia produces 80 % of its gas and 17 % its of oil, but its raw material potential is not fully exploited.

According to the estimates, at the end of 2019, the oil reserves of the Russian Arctic Zone are estimated at 7.3 billion tons, condensate at 2.7 billion tons, natural gas at about 55 trillion cubic meters, and about 41 % of the region’s oil and gas resources are located on the Arctic shelf. It is important to note that at the same time, a significant portion of the resources is concentrated in the west of the Arctic shelf; the undiscovered reserves of the eastern part are mainly classified as assumed or conditional.

As of 2021, offshore oil production is carried out only at the PrirazlomnoyefieldintheBarentsSea,where‘GazpromNeftShelf’hasbeen producing since 2013. The development of such fields as ‘Pobeda’ in the Kara Sea and ‘Tsentralno-Olginskoye’ in the Khatanga Bay of the Laptev Sea is not planned in the near future. The problem is that Russia isnottechnologicallyreadyfortheproductionofArcticshelfoil,norisit ready for its environmentally safe development.

Today,themainproductionofhydrocarbonresourcesintheAZRFis onshore. According to experts’ forecasts, large-scale oil and natural gas production on the Arctic shelf of Russia is not planned until 2030–2035. At the same time, the best conditions for the development of oil and gas resources in the AZRF have been created in the coastal areas of the Barents and Kara Seas, the areas of which are characterized by good geologicalexploration,developedtransportinfrastructure,andmorecomfortable climatic conditions for economic activity.

According to the text of the ‘Energy Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2035’, it is planned to form an oil and gas mineral resource center, as well as an oil and gas chemical complex in the AZRF, and to expand the infrastructure for transporting energy resources.

The development of the Arctic hydrocarbon resources of the Russian Arctic seems to be very promising, but at the same time, it is a complex area of the Russian Arctic policy, which is due to a number of factors

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that restrain the development and production of natural resources of the Russian Arctic at this stage.

Firstly,oneshouldtakeintoaccountthe natural and geological factors: low temperatures, floating icebergs, year-round icing of the water area, seismic activity, the presence of permafrost, shallow bottom deposits of free gas, etc. This leads to poor knowledge of the geological structure of the Arctic Ocean, which seriously complicates the production of hydrocarbons in the Arctic. In addition, difficult natural and climatic conditions narrow the time opportunities for drilling and other offshore operations, and also create additional requirements for technical equipment and personnel.

Secondly, there are the infrastructural factors. An important condition for the development of hydrocarbon resources of the Russian Arctic is the provision of a system for transporting the volumes of oil and gas produced. The hydrocarbon transportation system includes the use of a tankerfleetandgascarriers,thetraditionaluseofrailandroadtransport, and requires serious investments. At the same time, the Russian Arctic is characterizedbyalowdensityoftransportandproductioninfrastructure.

Thirdly, there is a set of environmental factors, mainly due to anthropogenic activity in the Russian Arctic. The process of field development is accompanied by a large number of emissions into the atmosphere and discharges into the marine environment, which creates environmental risks for the economic system, the environment, and the safety of the Russian Arctic. Oil and gas activities are one of the main sources of ‘greenhouse’ gases that determine the process of climate change.

Technological factors are determined Russia’s lacking of its own technologies for the development of hydrocarbon resources of the Arctic shelf. Without any doubts, the development of the Arctic is a serious technological challenge for Russia. Unfortunately, at this stage, Russia is highlydependentonthesupplyofimportedequipmentandtechnologies for its oil and gas complex as a whole.

Suggestions for further readings

Boone, C. Renewable Energy in the Russian Arctic and Beyond: Can a Region Dominated by Oil and Gas Contribute to Russia’s Paris Agreement Targets? RIAC. – 2021. – July 5. URL: https://russiancouncil.ru/en/blogs/

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carter-boone/renewable-energy-in-the-russian-arctic-and-beyond-can-a-re- gion-dominat/.

Brodt, L. The Development of Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Resources in Russia:EnergyPolicyUpdatesandNewActivitiesbyCompanies//ArcticYear- book2021–DefiningandMappingtheArctic:Sovereignties,Policies,andPer- ceptions. – Publisher : Arctic Yearbook, 2021. – P. 234–248.

Lagutina, M. L. and Konyshev V. N. Rethinking Russia’s Energy Policy in the Arctic // Energy of the Russian Arctic. Ideals and Realities / ed. by V. I. Salygin. Palgrave. – 2022. – P. 109–122.

Lagutina, M. L. and Konyshev V. N. Activities of Major Oil and Gas Companies in the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federation // Energy of the Russian Arctic. Ideals and Realities / ed. by V. I. Salygin. Palgrave. – 2022. – P. 141–161.

Leksyutina, Ya. V. Russia’s Cooperation with Northeast Asian Countries in the Commercial Development of the Arctic. Far Eastern Affairs. – 2021. № 1. – P. 33–48.

Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation. Energeticheskaya strategiya Rossii na period do 2035 goda (Energy strategy of Russia for the period up to 2035). – 2020. – 9 June. – № 1523-р. URL: https://minenergo.gov.ru/ node/1026.

Moe, A. Russia and the Development of Arctic Energy Resources // The Arctic and World Order / K. Spohr, D. S. Hamilton and J. Moyer (eds.). – Brookings : Institution Press. – 2020. – P. 119–142.

Morgunova, M. Oil and Natural Gas Exploitation in the Russian Arctic // ISPI. – 2021. URL: https://www.ispionline.it/en/pubblicazione/oil-and-natu- ral-gas-exploitation-russian-arctic-29947.

Questions for discussion

1.What does it mean ‘the Arctic as a ‘resource base’ of Russia’?

2.Why is the resource-based approach to the Arctic criticized by regional leaders of the AZRF?

3.What are the modern trends in energy development of the Russian Arctic?

4.What are the key challenges of the energy dimension of the Russian Arctic’s development?

5.Whatarethekeyinternal/externalfactorsofchangingprioritiesinRussia’s energy policy in the Arctic in the second decade of the 21st century?

6.To what extent can US sanctions and EU restrictive measures be influenced on the AZRF’s energy development?

7.Can the priority of sustainable development in Russia’s Arctic policy lead to a decrease in the pace of energy development in the AZRF?

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8. Will Russia be able to overcome technological difficulties in the energy development of the AZRF in the near future?

Research task

Please, study and discuss the following cases:

–The activity of ‘Rosneft’ in the AZRF (key projects, cooperation with foreign companies, social and environmental responsibility).

–The activity of ‘Gazprom’ in the AZRF (key projects, cooperation with foreign companies, social and environmental responsibility).

–The activity of ‘Novatek’ in the AZRF (key projects, cooperation with foreign companies, social and environmental responsibility).

–The activity of ‘Lukoil’ in the AZRF (key projects, cooperation with foreign companies, social and environmental responsibility).

–TheactivityofEuropeanOilandGasCompaniesintheAZRF(key projects,cooperationwithRussiancompanies,socialandenvironmental responsibility).

–The activity of Asian Oil and Gas Companies in the AZRF (key projects,cooperationwithRussiancompanies,socialandenvironmental responsibility).

Topic 6. Social and Economic development of the AZRF. ‘Human Security’ in the AZRF3

Abstract. Social tendencies of the AZRF’s development. Migration in the AZRF. Specific features and developmental characteristics of the Russian Arctic’s economy. Sustainable development of the AZRF.

What is the ‘human security’? ‘Human Development Report’ of the Unit- ed Nations Human Development Program (UNDP). The main components of ‘human security’: economic security, food security, health security, envi- ronmental security, personal security, community security, and political se- curity. The ‘human’ component of the current Russia’s strategy in the AZRF. Key threats to ‘human security’ in the AZRF.

3 See in details: Lagutina, M. The place of the concept of ‘human security’ in the strategies of the Arctic countries // SHS Web of Conferences 112, 00028. – 2021. URL: https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202111200028.

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SocioeconomicdevelopmentisstilloneofthemainprioritiesofRussia’s Arctic policy. However, the Russian Arctic’s economy has certain specific features and developmental characteristics, conditioned by several factors, such as harsh climate, poor transportation, underdeveloped infrastructure, low labor mobility, etc. On the one hand, the AZRF is an underpopulated region with industrial hubs unevenly distributed across it and with a commodities economy. On the other hand, the AZRF’s industrialsectoristhestrongestamongtheArcticregionsofArcticnations, andthescaleofeconomicactivityintheregionismuchbiggerthaninthe Arctic regions of other Arctic countries: the AZRF’s economy generates about70%oftheGDPoftheentireArcticzoneandproducesmorethan 20 % of exports (gas, oil, non-ferrous metals, fish).

In October 2020 Vladimir Putin signed a decree approving the

‘Strategy for the Development of the Arctic Zone of the Russian Federa- tion and Ensuring National Security for the Period until 2035’ (‘Strate- gy-2020’), which is a document developed in order to implement the ‘Fundamentals-2020’. The ‘Strategy-2020’ defines the main directions, tasks and measures for the development of the AZRF, as well as the mechanisms, stages and expected results of their implementation. An important novelty of the two new documents – ‘Fundamentals – 2020’ and ‘Strategy-2020’ – is the priority of improving the quality of life of people living in the AZRF. It seems that the ‘human’ component is added in both documents. Thus, in ‘Fundamentals-2020’: two of the five goals directly relate to population of the Russian Arctic, indigenous peoples. One of the goals is related to improving the quality of their lives, the second is to protect their original habitat and traditional way of life. The same can be found in the case of ‘Strategy-2020’: the main problems of the development of Russia’s Arctic and its national security include;climatechange,populationdecline,laggingoftheindicatorsof qualityoflifeintheAZRFfromnationalindicators,lackofhigh-quality infrastructure, etc.

AmongtheachievementsofRussia’sArcticpolicysince2008hasbeen the creation of conditions for the implementation of economic projects and new investments on the territory of the AZRF: nickel production in Norilsk, starting the Yamal LNG plant for the production of liquefied

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