Английский язык. Хрестоматия по чтению специальных текстов «Famous World Museums» для студентов 1-2 курсов специальности 070503 «Музейное дело» дневно

In many cases modern art is displayed in a separate institution. The role of such museums is to confront the public with art in the process of development, and their work has a considerable experimental component. This is particularly so at the Centre Beaubourg in Paris, the Stedelijk Museum («Municipal Museum») in Amsterdam, or the museums of modern art in Stockholm and New York City, where other contemporary art forms besides painting are also presented. Because of the experimental nature of modern art and the high cost involved in purchases, temporary exhibitions normally play a major role in such museums and in some cases is their principal activity. Contemporary sculpture is often exhibited outdoors, as at the Hirshhorn in Washington, D.C.; the Open-Air Museum in Hakone, Japan; or the Billy Rose Art Garden in Jerusalem.

Another form of art museum is the portrait gallery. The pictures displayed there have been created to communicate an image. The approach, however, is more akin to that of a specialized history museum, and aesthetic considerations generally are secondary in forming the collections. Although the idea of a portrait gallery is of some antiquity–a large collection of portraits of the kings of France

and their statesmen was exhibited in Paul Ardier's gallery at the Chateau de Beauregard, near Blois1, in the 1620s, for example–the national portrait gallery as a public institution is a later development.

1. Paul Ardier's gallery at the Chateau de Beauregard, near Blois – Галерея Поля Ардье,

расположенная рядом с Блуа (Франция).

HISTORY MUSEUMS

The term history museum is often used for a wide variety of museums where collections are amassed and, in most cases, are presented to give a chronological perspective. Because of the encompassing nature of history, museums of this type may well hold so many objects of art and science that they would more properly be called general museums.

Museums of general history are rare at the national level. An example, however, is the Museo Nacional de Historia in Chapultepec Castle, Mexico City. At the local level there are many examples, of which the Museum of London and the city museums of Amsterdam, Dresden, New York City, Stockholm, and Warsaw are but a few. In many cases, if artifacts are not

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available or are inappropriate, curators use reconstructions, models, and graphics to maintain chronological continuity and to increase the opportunity for interpretation within their essentially didactic approach.

While such history museums may include archaeological material, there is nevertheless a distinctive type, the antiquities museum. Such collections of relics of the ancient world can be found in national museums in a number of cities, for example. Amman, Jordan: Athens; Cairo; Copenhagen; Edinburgh; and Madrid. The antiquities museum is particularly common in Europe and Asia. Specialized archaeology museums also are found in areas of rich antiquity or as on-site museums. The archaeology museum is concerned mainly with historical evidence recovered from the ground and in many cases provides information on a period for which the written record can make little or no contribution.

Another specialized form of the history museum collects and exhibits material from an ethnographic viewpoint. As the term suggests, emphasis is placed on culture rather than chronology in the presentation of the collections.

THE ETHNOGRAPHY MUSEUM

The ethnography museum is common among newer nation states of Africa and Oceania, where it is seen as a means of contributing to national unity among different cultural groups. Among the industrialized nations and particularly in countries that have been involved in colonization, the ethnography museum is a museum of the cultures of other peoples. Many of these institutions have been established in the capital cities, which at the height of colonization were the nation's window on a world otherwise distant and unknown. Thus were founded the Musee de l'Homme, Paris; the Museum of Mankind (a branch of the British Museum), London; and the Tropenmuseum (Museum of the Royal Tropical Institute), Amsterdam. Specialized ethnography museums are also to be found in

provincial cities with links to other cultures: the Ubersee-Museum («Overseas Museum») in Bremen resulted from the city's proximity to a major international port, as did the fine ethnology collection in the general museum at Liverpool. In many cases the collections reflect the country's trade or colonial connections.

There are other forms of the cultural history museum. Particularly prolific are museums concerned with preserving urban and rural traditions;

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these have rapidly increased in number with the pace of technological progress. Indeed, some history museums are involved in documenting various material aspects of contemporary life and in the selective collection of artifacts. Artur Hazilius developed the first museum of traditional life at the Nordiska Museet («Nordic Museum»), Stockholm, in 1872, to be followed by the first open-air museum, at Skansen. Museums of both types soon appeared in other countries. The Musèe National des Arts et Traditions Populaires in Paris exemplifies a national approach within a museum building. Outdoor museums preserving traditional architecture, sometimes in situ, and often demonstrating the activities associated with them, are to be found in many parts of the world: the National Museum of Niamey, Niger, or the Museum of Traditional Architecture in Jos, Nigeria; the Muzeul Satului («Village Museum») of Bucharest; Upper Canada Village, Morrisburg, Ont1.; or the Novgorod State Museum Preserve in Russia. Individual historic houses have been preserved as museums, in some cases because they are typical of the period and in other cases because of their associations. Among the latter are the memorial museums, such as the cottage of Tu Fu (Du Fu) at Ch'eng-tu (Chengdu), in the Chinese province of Szechwan (Sichuan), and the Leo Tolstoy Museum, Moscow (both of which could also be regarded as literature museums), or Mount Vernon, George Washington's home in Virginia.

Other museums commemorate events, as do the Australian War Memorial in Canberra or the Imperial War Museum, London; both are military museums, members of a category that grew after World War I. Another development in the 20th-century history museum has been the maritime museum. Like other types of museums, they may be housed in historic buildings, as at the National Maritime Museum at Greenwich, Eng2.; in new premises, as in the case of the Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum («German Ship Museum») at Bremerhaven, Ger3.; or in a restored waterfront environment, as at South Street, New York City.

1.Ont – Ontario – провинция Канады.

2.Eng – England.

3.Ger – Germany.

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SCIENCE MUSEUMS

The origins of the science museum lie in the cabinets of curiosities and the spirit of the Enlightenment in Europe. They are concerned with the natural or applied sciences, or sometimes with both. Some approach their collections historically, as do museums of natural history or museums of the history of science and technology, the latter being concerned with scientific ideas and instrumentation and the technology developing from them. Such museums have an important role in preserving the material evidence of scientific and technological endeavour. Other science and technology museums may be more concerned with demonstrating science and its applications, and in these museums the preservation of processes is emphasized over the preservation of objects.

Specimens from natural science were included, albeit as part of an encyclopedic collection, in some of the earliest museums: the Ashmolean, the British Museum (the specimens were later separated from the larger collection and relocated at the British Museum of Natural History and the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris). With the development of the natural sciences in the 19th century, these museums flourished and their number multiplied. In the United States and Latin America their collections often included physical and social anthropology as well as natural science. More recently natural science museums have responded to new trends in nature conservation and broader environmental matters. Other museums have established programs for recording biological data for the area they serve, to facilitate environmental planning (often in conjunction with local planning authorities) and to provide information to assist in the interpretation of ecological displays. Major museums such as the British Museum (Natural History), the Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, and the American Museum of Natural History in New York City continue to be international centers of taxonomic work that sustain large amounts of research.

Museums of the applied sciences and technical museums are popular with children and adults alike and often provide opportunities for their visitors to participate through models and displays. Well-known examples of these are at the Deutsches Museum, Munich; the Science Museum, London; and, of a more specialized nature, the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C. Developing countries see an important role for museums of science and technology in education, and in India museums of this type have

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been established at Calcutta, Bangalore, Pilani, and elsewhere. Others are of a more technical nature, such as the very popular Museum of Science and Industry of Chicago or the Museo Tecnologico in Mexico City. Industry often directly or indirectly sponsors these museums. Occasionally industries or individual companies have founded their own museums to preserve their heritage and promote their work. Museums and science centers devoted to modern science also provide, demonstrations of scientific theory. Other more specialized institutions of this type include transport museums.

Part III

The museum operation

THE ORGANIZATION OF MUSEUMS

On an international level, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) form an important link between governments for museum collaboration. Since its inception in 1946, it has been responsible for an increasing body of legislation to protect the world's cultural property. UNESCO has aided in the return of cultural property to its country of origin and also has initiated campaigns to ensure the protection of major world heritage sites. It has provided financial assistance for the renovation of older museums and the establishment of new ones, particularly in developing countries. Some of its member states were responsible for the creation of the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) in Rome.

A number of regional governmental bodies also have an interest in museum provision. For example, the Organization of African Unity was instrumental in the creation of the Organization for Museums, Monuments and Sites of Africa to promote the better protection of the continent's heritage. In Western Europe the Council of Europe has promoted legislation for the protection of the archaeological heritage, undertaken a number of studies on museum provision, and promoted an award for museums. The European Communities promotes exchanges between museums, encourages the development of «European rooms» in certain museums of its member states, and has contributed to the capital costs of museum development.

The organization of museums varies from one country to the next. For example, France exercises considerable state control, as did the former Soviet Union. In other countries a few museums in the capital cities may be financed

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by the government, as in Britain, Canada, and the United States, although not necessarily under direct government control; the majority of the museums in these countries, however, are provided by other agencies. Although there has been a marked increase in the number of private museums, in general private patronage has declined, making probable an increase in the need for corporate patronage or government funding.

Many museums were founded through private benefaction, and a few have endowments that help to support their routine operation. Others may have received bequests, many of which are designated to be used only for the purchase of objects. Such sources, although they may seem appropriate when secured, can suffer from changes in economic circumstances and may have attached to them conditions that are incompatible with requirements of the modern museum.

Today museums, particularly in the industrialized nations, are becoming increasingly involved in fund-raising, in seeking commercial sponsorship, and in their own trading activities. Fund-raising may be undertaken by the museum, by a commissioned organization, or by a support body such as the many «friends of the museum» organizations now in existence. Fund-raising and sponsorship are normally directed toward a specific project or development.

Many museums charge entrance fees to help finance operations, but some countries, such as the United Kingdom, have a strong tradition of free entry to museums. Some museums charge admission fees only for major exhibitions. Others have introduced a system of voluntary donations by visitors on entry to supplement their income, but the results of this approach generally have been disappointing.

Commercial activities have become a significant feature of many museums. These may take the form of restaurants or shops that provide a service to visitors as well as income to the museum. Some museums have separate trading companies that act as publishers or engage in mail-order business, the profits from which are directed to the museum for general purposes. In this way the museum retains its charitable status, is not exposed to the direct dangers that would follow commercial failure, and also circumnavigates any requirements that direct income be returned to the public purse.

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Museum buildings and plants also require management by specialists. The popular concept of the public museum originating in the Greek temple has led to the monumental character of many museum buildings. These buildings, which by no means are restricted to museums of art, are generally inefficient in use of space and in environmental control. The majority of museums created since the beginning of the 19th century, however, have been housed in historic buildings that present problems of adaptation for a specialized use. It is rare, therefore, that a museum's premises meet the conflicting needs of utilization and preservation, of providing both public access and security.

COLLECTION

The history of museums and their precursors indicates the influence that the existence of a collection has had on the founding of museums and therefore on the nature of their original holdings. Before the 20th century few museums were established with the goal of making a collection; instead, they were created to receive an existing collection. With the existing collection as its base, the museum proceeded to collect to fill gaps or to extend its activity into other, usually related, fields. For this reason many museums have heterogeneous collections, at best accumulated under an «encyclopedic» philosophy (which has rarely been successful unless major resources were available to achieve it), and at worst continuing a «cabinet of curiosities» (which may amuse and entertain the clientele but have little scientific validity). Often the collections made depended on the expertise or whim of the curator and were sure to change when that curator was succeeded by someone with different interests. This method has produced some outstanding special collections, but these have resulted from circumstance rather than long-term planning.

Explicit collection policies have become more common. Indeed where national codes of practice exist a strong recommendation is normally to be found on the need for a clear statement of collecting activity. This has arisen for a number of reasons. Not only should a public institution's policies be available for scrutiny but the cost of maintaining collections of ever-increasing size must be justified, a factor highlighted at times of economic pressure. Further, although a museum may have arisen from circumstance, an assessment of its available resources, the clientele it attracts or intends to

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attract, and the role it can serve in society generally must be matched against its primary resource, its collections.

Every museum is responsible for ensuring the legality of its acquisitions. Many nations have ratified the UNESCO convention of 1970 on the illicit import, export, and transfer of ownership of cultural property. Other similar regional legislation also exists. In 1976 the Organization of American States adopted the San Salvador Convention on the protection of the archaeological, historical, and artistic heritage of the American nations, while the Council of Europe's 1969 convention on the protection of the archaeological heritage has a similar purpose.

Indeed, it is unlikely that a museum with clearly stated academic objectives will acquire illicit material. Methods of collection reflect the fact that a museum is concerned not only with collections per se but also with the information inherent in or associated with them. Where applicable, direct acquisition through fieldwork is much preferred. This involves collecting material through archaeological excavation, ethnological expeditions, or natural science fieldwork, and the collecting either is undertaken by the staff of the museum or is sponsored by it. Indirect acquisition is handled through purchases, gifts, bequests, and loans of objects.

The collecting activities of the industrialized world and those available to the developing nations are markedly different. In some instances the significant cultural property of entire nations has been dispersed to private collections and museums in different parts of the world, leaving the developing museums to rely on casts and replicas to convey the area's cultural achievements. The international community has had only limited success in encouraging the return, through exchange or loan, of such material to its country of origin.

The true significance of cultural property, collectively the universal heritage of mankind, places on museums a considerable responsibility. The acceptance of objects or collections into their care implies permanence not associated with the acceptance of other types of property. Some museum legislation acknowledges this, declaring such collections inalienable. The disposal of museum collections in part, or in full, therefore normally only occurs in cases where items no longer serve a useful scholarly or interpretative purpose. The case for deaccessioning, as it is known in North America, can only otherwise have any validity where it is done to correct the imbalances of

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earlier indiscriminate collecting, and in that case the material concerned should first be made available to other suitable museums before being disposed of.

CONSERVATION OF COLLECTIONS

The care and maintenance of cultural property–a term used to describe significant objects like those in museum collections–is a major obligation of museums. Activities that preserve museum objects for the future are known collectively as conservation. Professionals who perform these activities are known as conservators.

Conservators periodically examine objects, document their condition, and, if necessary, treat and repair them. They distinguish between two treatment approaches: stabilization and restoration. An object may be stabilized to maintain its integrity and minimize deterioration, or it may be restored to a previous state. During restoration, conservators may add materials that are not original to the object. Recommended practices call for restoration techniques and materials that are visible and reversible and that preserve the characteristics of the object.

Conservation requires specialized skills, facilities, and equipment that vary according to the type of object–paintings, textiles, photographs, sculpture, film or video, and so forth. A painting conservator understands how to clean the surface of an oil painting whose surface has darkened or yellowed with age.

A museum's prime responsibility must maintain its collections and do all possible to delay the natural laws of deterioration. The acquisition of an item almost certainly brings it into a new and potentially alien environment. Material that has been recovered from the ground through archaeological excavation may need immediate treatment to stabilize it, and in many cases it is important that some attention is given to this before it reaches the museum. Many of the materials from which objects are made are inherently unstable and undergo chemical or structural change as they age. A new or shifting environment can accelerate these changes, and temperature, light, humidity, human, and other biological factors all need to be controlled. In addition, conservation involves the treatment and, where feasible and acceptable, the restoration of objects as nearly as possible to their former condition.

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Most large museums have their own laboratories where preservation and restoration work is carried out, and some take on projects for other museums as well. In some cases, as at the British Museum, a separate research laboratory supports the museum's academic and conservation work, providing advanced scientific equipment for the analysis, dating, and identification of materials. Some museums are served by independent conservation laboratories, an example of which is the Canadian Conservation Institute, in Ottawa, which uses a fleet of mobile laboratories to attend to museum collections in many parts of the country.

DOCUMENTATION

Documentation is a significant function of any museum, whether it holds only a few hundred objects or, as in the case of the largest institutions, many millions of items. Quite apart from the need for records to maintain adequate control of its collections, a museum's documentation system provides an indispensable record of the information associated with the objects for research. It may also include records, indirectly associated with the collections, to facilitate the museum's interpretative and other work.

The form of a museum's documentation system may vary considerably, but to meet these requirements it should provide the fullest possible information about each item and its history. There are no generally accepted classification schemes for museum objects, although certain subjects have developed schemes with numeric or alphanumeric notations to facilitate the ordering and retrieval of information. For the natural sciences, taxonomic names are normally used.

With the advent of information technology, a number of museums have developed computerized documentation systems, some on-line but others relying on machine-generated indexes, periodically updated. In certain countries the potential offered by computers to exchange data among museums has been exploited.

RESEARCH

Because they hold the primary material evidence for a number of subjects concerned with an understanding of man and his environment, museums clearly have an important role in research. The museum's research program is related to its objectives as an institution. A program may be

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