Английский язык. Практикум по чтению научно-технических текстов

Ex. 1. Learn to pronounce the words given below:

diffusion [di/fju:ʒən], innovation [/inou/vei∫ən], efficient [i/fi∫ənt], benign [bi/nain], apparent [ə/pærənt], technique [tek/ni:k], reduce [ri/dju:s], harm [ha:m], explicit [iks/plisit], profitability [/profitə/biliti], enhancement [in/ha:nsmənt], peculiarity [pi/kju:li/æriti], initially [i/ni∫əli], particular [pə/tikjulə], facsimile [fæk/simili], design [di/zain], cellular [/seljulə], telephony [ti/lefəni], renewable [ri/nj:uəbl], boost [bu:st], subsequent [/sΛbsikwənt], fossil [/fosl], capacity [kə/pæsiti], turbine [/tə:bin], gear [giə], domestic [də/mestik], demand [di/ma:nd], compete [kəm/pi:t], crisis [/kraisis], criteria [krai/tiəriə], technological [/teknə/lodʒəkəl], compatibility [kəm/pætə/biliti], nuclear [/nju:kliə], utilities [ju:/tilitiz], permit [/pə:mit], incentive [in/sentiv], decentralized [di:/sentrəlaizd], alternative [o:l/tə:nətiv], pursued [pə/sju:d], emission [i/mi∫ən], vehicle [/vi:ikl], gasoline [/gæsəli:n], injection [in/dʒek∫ən], combustion [kəm/bΛst∫ən], Europe [/juərəp], consumption [kən/sΛmp∫ən].

2. Text Study

Ex. 2. Read Text A and find out:

a)how the word combination “environmental innovation” is defined;

b)the examples of environmental innovations.

Text A

International Diffusion of Environmental Innovations

Environmental regulations are often intended to stimulate the generation and adoption of eco-efficient innovations. An important argument in the public debate is also the creation of new markets for environmentally benign products, processes and services in other countries and the generation, as a result, of export opportunities for the pioneering country.

Growing interest has been apparent in the relationship between innovation and the environment in recent years. We use the following definition of environmental innovation: “environmental innovations” consist of new or modified processes, techniques, practices, systems and products to avoid or reduce environmental harms. Environmental innovations may be developed

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with or without the explicit aim of reducing environmental harm. They may also be motivated by typical business objectives such as profitability or the enhancement of product quality.

One peculiarity of environmental innovations is that they produce positive spillovers in both the innovation and diffusion phases. The innovator creates or adopts a new process, product or organizational measure, which improves the quality of the environment. While society as a whole benefits from the innovation, the costs are borne by the innovator alone.

As far as the diffusion of globally successful innovations is concerned, it is apparent that many innovation designs have only become internationally successful after initially being preferred and adopted in one particular country. The facsimile machine, for example, was adopted in Japan before becoming the globally preferred design for text-based telecommunication. Cellular phones were first widely adopted in the Nordic countries and the US led the adoption of the personal computer.

The introduction of competing innovation designs helps to explain why it is by no means certain that the early adoption of an innovation in one country will necessarily lead to export success. An innovation design is a specification or configuration of an innovation idea. Different designs of an innovation fulfill the same function, but may have different modes or specifications. IBM, Apple Macintosh or Sinclair computers, for example, are different designs of a personal computer. The GSM cellular telephone, personal satellite telephony and pagers are different forms of mobile communications design.

Further, we are going to analyze concrete environmental innovations in cases where international diffusion of innovations can be observed: wind energy and the fuel efficiency of passenger cars.

The world market for renewable energies and especially wind energy has grown rapidly in recent decades, boosted by the oil crises and subsequent discussion of the environmental impact of fossil fuels. Denmark is the pioneer country for wind-generated electric power. Although Germany has the largest installed wind energy capacity in the world, the use of wind energy as a share of total wind potential is smaller in Germany than in Denmark. Thanks to its leading role in the use of wind energy, Denmark is the world's largest exporter of wind turbine generators. While Denmark's wind industry is geared to the world market, the German wind industry relies more on domestic demand and regulation. Compare: Denmark: 81 % exports, 19 % imports; Germany: 10 % exports, 90 % imports.

While wind energy was originally regarded as very expensive to compete with fossil fuels, the situation changed during the oil crisis. Several countries began installing wind power plants. The main criteria for the technological

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development of such large wind power plants was their compatibility with existing systems of large, centralized fossil and nuclear energy plants. Energy utilities had no incentives to undermine their own system by developing a decentralized alternative system of renewable energies.

Policies for wind energy usage vary considerably from country to country. Three distinct types of strategies for supporting wind energy are pursued in Europe.

1. Renewable energy feed tariffs (REFITs) have been implemented in Germany, Denmark, Spain, Italy and Austria. They were also used temporarily in Ireland and the Netherlands and were introduced in France recently. The REFIT system introduces fixed prices for green electricity, which have to be paid by energy utilities to producers of renewable energy.

2. Bidding systems have been implemented in the United Kingdom and in Ireland. They were also used temporarily in France. Competition among electricity producers is created by calls for tender from an agency representing the government. Energy utilities have the obligation to buy a fixed amount of renewable energy per year from different sources. The bidding system leads to high competitive pressure, low costs and prices.

3. А system of green tradable permits for renewable energies has only been introduced in the Netherlands. Tradable permits combine the efficiency gains of bidding systems with the advantages of REFIT systems (achieving environmental goals by means of fixed targets for the development of renewable energies).

A wind industry tends to develop rapidly in countries with a REFIT system. In countries with bidding systems, wind energy use has developed very slowly despite the available wind resources. In France, the United Kingdom and Ireland, the wind industry is poorly developed although these countries have coastal regions with high wind potentials.

Fuel efficiency is one means of reducing harmful or greenhouse gas emissions. Vehicle fuel efficiency can be achieved with diesel or gasoline direct injection combustion engines or by combining a gasoline engine and electric motor. Modern injection systems have been developed by several car companies in Europe and Japan. Germany was the lead market, however.

Modern fuel-efficient passenger cars use a bundle of technologies designed to reduce a vehicle's fuel consumption. The most effective fuelsaving technologies are the use of low-weight materials, making car bodies more aerodynamic and optimizing the combustion process. In fact, cars have become even heavier over time and body design has to meet safety as well as aesthetic criteria.

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The US successfully leads the way aimed at reducing pollutants. While Europe is also striving to reduce pollutants, it is more interested, and has been more successful, in increasing fuel efficiency than the US or Japan.

Ex. 3. Find the correct definitions to the words and word combinations in the box.

Something new that is introduced, damage to surroundings, spreading or being spread, wireless phones, energy restored, possibility of holding or containing, coordination or ability to exist together, public services, sending out or giving off, process of burning.

Ex. 4. Find a word:

a) with the close meaning:

benign – favourable – efficient – global;

to intend – to develop – to produce – to determine; a goal – a target – a gain – a bundle;

an objective – an incentive – an alternative – a motive; to compete – to combine – to strive – to achieve;

a design – a policy – consumption – a strategy; b) with the opposite meaning:

cellular – mobile – available – fixed;

a lead market – a world market – a lag market – a wholesale market;

a domestic demand – a public demand – a external demand – a poor demand; to implement – to increase – to reduce – to introduce;

nuclear energy – consumption energy – renewable energy – used energy; an opportunity – a generation – a peculiarity – a collapse.

Ex. 5. Write the Russian equivalents to:

environmental regulations are intended to stimulate, environmentally benign products, export opportunities for the pioneering country, with or without the explicit aim of reducing environmental harm, typical business objectives, they produce positive spillovers in both the innovation and diffusion phases, as far as the diffusion of globally successful innovations is concerned, globally preferred design for text-based telecommunication, cellular phones were widely adopted, boosted by the oil crisis, environmental impact of fossil fuel, the largest installed wind energy capacity in the world, thanks to its leading role, while wind industry is geared to the world market, wind industry is regarded as very expensive to compete

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with fossil fuels, renewable energy feed tariffs, fixed prices for green electricity, bidding systems, a system of green tradable permits, achieving environmental goals by means of fixed targets for the development of renewable energies, greenhouse gas emissions, a bundle of technologies designed to, the most effective fuel-saving technologies.

Ex. 6. Find in text A the English equivalents to the following word combinations:

развитие и внедрение экологически эффективных новшеств, рента- бельность или улучшение качества продукта, многие инновационные модели стали успешными на международном уровне, внедрение пер- сонального компьютера, введение конкурирующих моделей помога- ет объяснить, мировой рынок возобновляемых типов энергии, доля всего ветрового потенциала, крупнейший мировой экспортер генера- торов ветровых турбин, ветровая промышленность полагается на внутренний спрос, некоторые страны начали устанавливать ветровые электростанции, совместимость с существующими системами мас- штабных, централизованных топливных и ядерных электростанций, у энергопредприятий не было побудительных причин разрушать свою систему, политика в области использования ветровой энергии существенно отличается, конкуренция среди производителей элек- троэнергии, обязательство покупать определенное количество возоб- новляемой энергии в год, ветровая промышленность имеет тенден- цию быстро развиваться, доступные ветроресурсы, топливный КПД транспортного средства, двигатели внутреннего сгорания, сократить потребление топлива транспортным средством, внешний вид авто- мобиля должен соответствовать эстетическим критериям.

3. Conversation Practice

Ex. 7. Agree or disagree with the statements given below, using the appropriate phrases. Explain your choice.

1. Environmental innovations are regarded as an important means of solving a country’s ecological problems. 2. Environmental innovations do not create positive spillovers during the diffusion phase as well as the innovation one. 3. Cellular phones were first adopted in Japan. 4. Different designs of an innovation have different modes or specifications. 5. The world market for wind energy grew many years ago. 6. Denmark is the pioneer country for wind generated electric power. 7. Wind energy is regarded as very expensive to compete with fossil fuels. 8. There are four

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strategies for supporting wind energy in Europe. 9. Modern injection systems have been developed by several car companies in Germany. 10. Both the USA and Europe lead the way aimed at reducing pollutants.

Ex. 8. Answer the following questions.

1.What are environmental regulations intended to stimulate?

2.What definition of “environmental innovations” is used in the text?

3.Do environmental innovations produce positive spillovers in both the innovation and the diffusion phases?

4.Where and when was the facsimile machine adopted?

5.Is the use of wind energy smaller in Germany or in Denmark?

6.Japan is the world’s largest exporter of wind turbine generators, isn’t it?

7.What is the main criterion for the technological development of large wind power plants?

8.How many policies of wind energy have you learnt from the text? What are they?

9.What reduces harmful gas emissions?

10 What are the most effective fuel-saving technologies based on?

Ex. 9. Read the plan and rearrange it in the order the problems appear in the text.

1.Three types of strategies for supporting wind energy in Europe.

2.The growth for renewable energies especially wind energy in the world market.

3.Fuel efficiency is one means of reducing harmful or greenhouse gas emissions.

4.An innovation design is a configuration of an innovation idea. Competing innovation designs.

5.The relationship between innovation and the environment.

Ex. 10. Retell text A using the rearranged plan given above and the word combinations given below:

–eco-efficient and environmental innovations;

–the explicit aim of reducing environmental harms;

–in both the innovation and the diffusion phases;

–initially being preferred and adopted in one particular country;

–he introduction of competing innovation designs;

–boosted by the oil crisis;

–wind industry is geared to the world market;

–compatibility with existing systems;

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–renewable energy feed tariffs;

–bidding systems;

–a system of green tradable permits;

–harmful or greenhouse gas emissions;

–vehicle fuel efficiency;

–diesel or gasoline direct injection combustion engines;

–a bundle of technologies designed to reduce vehicle’s fuel consumption;

–the most effective fuel-saving technologies.

4. Grammar. The Infinitive.

The Infinitive Constructions

The meanings of the forms of the Infinitive

1. The Indefinite Infinitive denotes a simultaneous action.

E.g. Local firms use technical knowledge from abroad to meet local demands.

Fuel efficiency is not enough to persuade users to adopt the relevant innovations.

2.The Continuous Infinitive denotes a simultaneous action plus a process.

E.g. Frogs seem to be reproducing at various times throughout the spring.

They happened to be discussing Darwin’s theory of evolution.

3.The Perfect Infinitive denotes a prior action.

E.g. Ecologists are very glad to have defined “environmental innovations”. Foresters expected many hectares of forest to have been affected by acid rain.

Ex. 11. Translate the sentences given below in writing, paying attention to the functions of the Infinitive.

The Subject.

To recognize the role of non-technological factors for the diffusion of environmental innovations would be generally important for environmental and innovation policy.

To determine how organisms retain and recycle the minerals within an ecosystem is one of the major aims of ecological research.

The Part of the Predicate (the predicative).

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The soil can be considered a renewable resource although severe damage is difficult to repair because of the slow rate of soil-forming processes.

For many years the main goal of treating municipal wastewater was simply to reduce its content of suspended solids, dissolved inorganic compounds and harmful bacteria.

The Object.

Humans appeared late in the earth’s history but were ultimately able to modify the earth’s environment.

Experiments have shown that it would be possible to process recycled plutonium.

The Attribute.

Attempts to wean people away from their automobiles have been at best only partially successful.

The only innovations to be diffused internationally have been those, which reduce fuel consumption and simultaneously enhance other popular vehicle attributes.

The Adverbial Modifier.

Today’s automobiles are equipped with catalytic devices to decrease the emissions of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.

Plants use water, carbon dioxide and sunlight to convert raw materials into carbohydrates through photosynthesis.

The Complex Object

This complex consists of the subject + the predicate + a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the objective case + the infinitive. It is mostly translated into Russian by an object clause.

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The Complex Subject

This complex consists of the subject expressed by a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case + the predicate + the infinitive.

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Ex. 12. Identify the Infinitive Constructions in text A. Do grammar exercises 18-23 from chapter 2.

Ex. 13. Do the pre-reading tasks. Answer the following questions:

a)what is the purpose to produce energy?

b)what forms of energy do you know?

Text B

The Use of Energy

The purpose of producing energy is to meet three types of societal needs: mechanical work (electrical equipment, for example), heating supply and heat removal (cooling systems).

Energy does not disappear, it merely changes form. Different forms of energy have different qualities and degrees of usefulness.

Mechanical work is a highly efficient use of energy that we use to operate machines and carry out work. Heating and cooling are low-grade uses of energy. The lower the temperature level required for heating, the lower the physical value or quality of the energy function.

Energy is the energy that can actually be utilized for mechanical work and all other purposes of energy. Electric energy is pure energy – it can be

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