Methodology of Scientific Research (Методология научного исследования). Учебное пособие

100 samples will have the true population value within range of precision.

Degree of Variability

Depending upon the target population and attributes under consideration, the degree of variability varies considerably. The more heterogeneous a population is, the larger the sample size is required to get an optimum level of precision. Note that a proportion of 55% indicates a high level of variability than either 10 or 80%. This is because 10% and 80% means that a large majority does not or does, respectively, have the attribute under consideration.

There are number of approaches to determine the sample size including: using a census for smaller populations, using published tables, imitating a sample size of similar studies, and applying formulas to calculate a sample size.

Scientific control group

A researcher must only measure one variable at a time, and using a scientific control group gives reliable baseline data to compare their results with.

For example, a medical study will use two groups, giving one set of patients the real medicine and the other a placebo, in order to rule out the placebo effect. In this particular type of research, the experiment is double blind.

Neither the doctors nor the patients are aware of which pill they are receiving, curbing potential research bias.

In the social sciences, control groups are the most important part of the experiment, because it is practically impossible to eliminate all of the confounding variables and bias.

For example, the placebo effect for medication is well documented, and the Hawthorne Effect is another influence

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where, if people know that they are the subjects of an experiment, they automatically change their behavior.

There are two main types of control, positive and negative, both providing researchers with ways of increasing the statistical validity of their data.

Positive scientific control groups are where the control group is expected to have a positive result, and allows the researcher to show that the set-up was capable of producing results.

Generally, a researcher will use a positive control procedure, which is similar to the actual design with a factor that is known to work.

For example, a researcher testing the effect of new antibiotics upon Petri dishes of bacteria, may use an established antibiotic that is known to work. If all of the samples fail, except that one, it is likely that the tested antibiotics are ineffective.

However, if the control fails too, there is something wrong with the design. Positive scientific control groups reduce the chances of false negatives.

Negative Scientific Control is the process of using the control group to make sure that no confounding variable has affected the results, or to factor in any likely sources of bias. It uses a sample that is not expected to work.

In the antibiotic example, the negative control group would be a Petri dish with no antibiotic, allowing the researcher to prove that the results are valid and that there are no confounding variables.

If all of the new medications worked, but the negative control group also showed inhibition of bacterial growth, then some other variable may have had an effect, invalidating the results.

A negative control can also be a way of setting a baseline. A researcher testing the radioactivity levels of various sam-

ples with a Geiger counter would also sample the background level, allowing them to adjust the results accordingly.

Establishing strong scientific control groups is arguably a more important part of any scientific design than the actual samples.

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Failure to provide sufficient evidence of strong control groups can completely invalidate a study, however high signifi- cance-levels indicate low probability of error.

Observation

This is the midpoint of the steps of the scientific method and involves observing and recording the results of the research, gathering the findings into raw data.

The observation stage involves looking at what effect the manipulated variables have upon the subject, and recording the results.

Analysis

The scope of the research begins to broaden again, as statistical analyses are performed on the data, and it is organized into an understandable form.

The answers given by this step allow the further widening of the research, revealing some trends and answers to the initial questions.

Conclusion and publishing

This stage is where, technically, the hypothesis is stated as proved or disproved.

However, the bulk of research is never as clear-cut as that, and so it is necessary to filter the results and state what happened and why. This stage is where interesting results can be earmarked for further research and adaptation of the initial hypothesis.

Even if the hypothesis was incorrect, maybe the experiment had a flaw in its design or implementation. There may be trends

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that, whilst not statistically significant, lead to further research and refinement of the process.

The results are usually published and shared with the scientific community, allowing verification of the findings and allowing others to continue research into other areas.

Writing task

1. Describe steps of your own scientific experiment, pay attention to all tiny details described above.

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2.Place of the discipline in the General Program: General scientific cycle (variable part): a student is to know what is science and a scientific method, cultural and historical evolution of science, levels, forms and methods of scientific cognition; concept of method and methodology of science, contents and structure; methodology of scientific research and concrete methodology of Master dissertation research.

3.Requirements to the results of the discipline acquisi-

tion:

The study process is directed to forming the following competencies:

– Capacity to increase one’s own cultural and professional level, acquiring autonomously new methods of research (ОК- 1);

– Ability to change the profile of the professional activity (ОК-2);

– Capacity to acquire autonomously and to use new knowledge and skills (ОК-3);

Ability to take organizational and managerial decisions and evaluate the consequences (ОК-4).

As the result the student is supposed to:

– know: laws of modern science functioning macroand microlevel; basic notions, categories and tools; general characteristics of the leading schools and steams in management; methods of economometric models forming in relation to objects, events and processes in management; fundamentals of constructing, calculating and analyzing modern system of indices that characterize the activity of economic subjects at microand macrolevel; main features of foreign and domestic firms (organizations) and the State economic policy;

– be able to: analyze the interdependence and interrelation of the processes that take part in science and institutes at microand macrolevel; find bottlenecks of managerial character in concrete situations, suggest ways of their solution taking into consideration criteria of social and economic effectiveness, risks

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evaluation and possible social and economic consequences; calculate economic and social indices on the basis of typical methods and existing norm and laws; use sources of economic, social and managerial information; analyze and interpret financial, accounting and other information that can be found in the balances of firms with different types of property, institutions, etc. and use the information received for managerial decisions; analyze and interpret date provided by domestic and foreign statistics on social and economic processes and phenomena, search for tendencies of possible changes in social and economic indices; look for information for the task given, collect and analyze data that is necessary for the solution of the economic task; choose the instrumental means to elaborate the economic data due to the managerial task, analyze the results of calculations and to prove the conclusions made; construct standard theoretical and econometric models on the situation described and interpret the results; prognosticate the behavior of economic agents on the basis of standard theoretical and econometric models and the development of economic processes and phenomena at microand macrolevel; present the results of analytic and research work in the forms of a report, speech, information analyzes, analytic record, article; organize the fulfillment of the concrete stage of work; organize the work of a small collective, work management at a firm; elaborate projects in the sphere of management taking into consideration existing norms, laws, resources, administrative and other restrictions;

– posses (have command of): modern scientific methods of data collecting, elaborating and analyzing about firm’s management (analysis of the firm’s resources); modern methods of econometric models forming in management; methods and means of economic phenomena and processes analyzing with the help of standard theoretical and econometrical models in management; modern methods of social and economic indices accounting and analyzes, that characterize managerial process and phenomena at the microand macrolevel; skills of autono-

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mous work, selfmanagement and management of the tasks completion; basic methods of the staff and population protection in case of incidents, calamities and catastrophes.

4. Workload of the discipline and forms of work.

Total workload of the discipline is ___2_______ credits

5. Contents of the discipline

5.1. Contents of the parts of the discipline

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