Methodology of Scientific Research (Методология научного исследования). Учебное пособие

For example, researchers studying the effectiveness of a cure for colds would take frequent samples, over a period of days. Researchers testing a cure for Parkinson’s disease would use less frequent tests, over a period of months or years.

Stage four

The penultimate stage of the experiment involves performing the experiment according to the methods stipulated during the design phase.

The independent variable is manipulated, generating a usable data set for the dependent variable.

Stage five

The raw data from the results should be gathered, and analyzed, by statistical means. This allows the researcher to establish if there is any relationship between the variables and accept, or reject, the null hypothesis.

These steps are essential to providing excellent results. Whilst many researchers do not want to become involved in the exact processes of inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning and operationalization, they all follow the basic steps of conducting an experiment. This ensures that their results are valid.

Will this classical experimental design still work when the subjects of the experiment are people rather than wheat seeds?

The experiment is still the norm in medical research and is widely used in all forms of psychology, research into health care and, to a lesser extent, research into social care. One particular form of the experimental design, the randomized controlled trial (through which, for instance, new drugs and forms of medical treatment are tested) is still generally regarded in those disciplines as the 'gold standard' of research. It is used to test new

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drugs and forms of medical treatment and to evaluate the effectiveness of new interventions in health and social care.

In each case the experiment is designed in such a way that it reduces the likelihood that the prior knowledge of the subjects, the practitioners and the researchers taking part in the trial might unduly influence the results of the experiment.

However, in many social situations it is simply not practical (or sensible) to try to control all of the possible variables that might influence the outcomes of a specific change or intervention. Indeed, in some instances it would also be unethical to use a controlled experiment if, for instance, the subjects were not in a position to give their informed consent to participation in the experiment or if participation meant that they might suffer or be treated unfairly or if the experiment required them to do something illegal or immoral. Also, in the real world, it may not be possible to assign people randomly to either the experimental or the control group.

In such circumstances some researchers have introduced the idea of a quasi-experiment. Perhaps the most common kinds of quasi-experiment employed in social research are: Where the researchers collect data that enable them to compare the same subjects before-and-after an intervention or change has been introduced.

Where the researchers establish a pilot or study group (the subjects of their research) who experience the change or intervention and a reference or comparator group from whom data are collected using the same research instruments even though they are not experiencing the change or intervention.

Therefore the quasi-experiment retains the element of comparison which is so central to the experimental research design but subjects are seldom allocated to their groups and, if they are, this is rarely done at ransom. In practice, in most quasiexperiments the res does not have any control at all over the socalled 'control group' (or reference or comparator group).

Ultimately the central question for any researcher opting for a quasi-experimental design will be: 'Am I comparing like with

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like?' If the answer is: 'I believe so' then the follow-up question will inevitably be: 'How do I know?'

There are a variety of different kinds of quasi-experimental research design and each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Questions to discuss

1.When and what is the experiment conducted for in social sciences, particularly, in economics? What will be the participants of this experiment and the possible results? Will they be reliable?

2.What is quasi-experiment? When is it used? Can we apply quasi-experiment in economics?

Written assignment

Design any experiment in macro or micro economics.

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Generally, the system of scientific measurements is interval or ratio based. When we talk about ‘scientific research methods’, this is what most people immediately think of, because it passes all of the definitions of ‘true science’. The researcher is accepting or refuting the null hypothesis.

The results generated are analyzable and are used to test hypotheses, with statistics giving a clear and unambiguous picture.

This research method is one of the most difficult, requiring rigorous design and a great deal of expense, especially for larger experiments. The other problem, where real life organisms are used, is that taking something out of its natural environment can seriously affect its behavior.

It is often argued that, in some fields of research, experimental research is ‘too’ accurate. It is also the biggest drain on time and resources, and is often impossible to perform for some fields, because of ethical considerations.

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study was a prime example of experimental research that was fixated on results, and failed to take into account moral considerations.

In other fields of study, which do not always have the luxury of definable and quantifiable variables – you need to use different research methods. These should attempt to fit all of the definitions of repeatability or falsifiability, although this is not always feasible.

Opinion based research methods

Opinion based research methods generally involve designing an experiment and collecting quantitative data. For this type of research, the measurements are usually arbitrary, following the ordinal or interval type.

Questionnaires are an effective way of quantifying data from a sample group, and testing emotions or preferences. This method

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is very cheap and easy, where budget is a problem, and gives an element of scale to opinion and emotion. These figures are arbitrary, but at least give a directional method of measuring intensity.

Quantifying behavior is another way of performing this research, with researchers often applying a ‘numerical scale’ to the type, or intensity, of behavior. The Bandura Bobo Doll experiment and the Asch Experiment were examples of opinion based research.

By definition, this experiment method must be used where emotions or behaviors are measured, as there is no other way of defining the variables.

Whilst not as robust as experimental research, the methods can be replicated and the results falsified.

Observational research methods

Observational research is a group of different research methods where the research try to observe a phenomenon without interfering to much.

Observational research methods, such as the case study, are probably the furthest removed from the established scientific method. This type is looked down upon, by many scientists, as ‘quasi-experimental’ research, although this is usually an unfair criticism. Observational research tends to use nominal or ordinal scales of measurement.

Observational research often has no clearly defined research problem, and questions may arise during the course of the study. For example, a researcher may notice unusual behavior and ask, ‘What is happening?’ or ‘Why?’

Observation is heavily used in social sciences, behavioral studies and anthropology, as a way of studying a group without affecting their behavior. Whilst the experiment cannot be replicated or falsified, it still offers unique insights, and will advance human knowledge.

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Case studies are often used as a pre-cursor to more rigorous methods, and avoid the problem of the experiment environment affecting the behavior of an organism. Observational research methods are useful when ethics are a problem.

Speaking about scientific measurements, there are several types.

Nominal scientific measurement

Nominal scientific measurements are numbers arbitrarily assigned to variables, allowing easier manipulation of sets.

For example, a researcher with 6 sample groups might prefer to refer to them as numbers. This will make the discussion of the methods and results less difficult.

For example,

‘In group 1 we found that…’

The numbering system merely provides a point of reference, and no underlying relationship or structure is inferred. ‘Group One’ is no better than ‘Group Six,’ for example, and the assigned numbers are only convenient labels.

Letters of the alphabet could be used, and it would make absolutely no difference to the experiment.

Ordinal scientific measurement

The ordinal system of scientific measurements uses a scale of numbering that has some meaning, and is statistically analyzable.

For example, a researcher designing a questionnaire might use the Likert scale of response to questions, from ‘1 – strongly disagree,’ to ‘5 – strongly agree.’ This does allow some numerical evaluation of the results, but it is not an accurate scale.

For example, you could not use 4⅜, or subdivide the scale. The Moh’s scale of hardness, the logarithmic Richter

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scale and the Beaufort Wind Scale are examples of ordinal measurements.

The ordinal scale is merely an arbitrary assignation of numbers, allowing researchers to operationalize the experiment.

The distance between 1 and 2 is not the same as between 2 and 3, so this system of scientific measurement is merely a convenient method of quantifying non-numerical data. Whilst a useful tool, experiments using ordinal scales will always undergo a vigorous process of scrutiny.

Interval scientific measurement

Interval scientific measurements are probably the most familiar type of scientific measurements, using a scale assigned to a phenomenon, with an arbitrary zero point.

Celsius and Fahrenheit are examples of interval measurement, with an arbitrarily determined value for zero. The difference between 20 degrees and 50 degrees Centigrade, is the same as between 50 degrees and 80 degrees.

An interval scale is also divisible. You can use thousandths or millionths of a degree, with no problem, and statisticians can manipulate the numbers, to find averages or medians.

The only limitation is of ratios, as for example, 100 degrees centigrade is not necessarily twice as hot as fifty degrees, because the scale allows negative measurement.

For example, what temperature is twice as hot as -10 degrees Centigrade? However, there may be an overlap between interval and ratio measurement; ratio measurements are always interval measurements.

Ratio scientific measurement

Ratio scientific measurements do possess a relationship of scale. With weight, for example, 100 kilograms is twice as

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heavy as fifty kilograms. 60 seconds is three times longer than 20 seconds are.

The Kelvin scale of temperature is a ratio measurement, because absolute zero is not arbitrarily assigned, so that you can say that 40 degrees Kelvin is twice as hot as 20 degrees Kelvin.

Ratio scientific measurements do not have negative values; for example, you cannot have negative mass or length. It is not possible to have a length of less than zero, or fewer than zero seconds.

Operationalization

Wherever possible, the operationalization stage of an experiment should always try to use intervals or ratios, because they are less arbitrary and less open to criticism.

They enable other researchers to easily test results and replicate the experiment, focusing upon the findings rather than questioning how, and why, certain units were used.

Obviously, this is not always possible, with many research methods requiring some arbitrary designation. This could be a subjective unit for measuring aggression, or the perceived activity level of an organism.

As long as the reasoning behind the system is fully explained, during the operationalization, there should be no problem. The research design and scientific measurements will stand up to scrutiny.

Conclusion

In an ideal world, experimental research methods would be used for every type of research, fulfilling all of the requirements of falsifiability and generalization.

However, ethics, time and budget are major factors, so any experimental design must make compromises. As long as a re-

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searcher recognizes and evaluates flaws in the design when choosing from different research methods, any of the scientific research methods are valid contributors to scientific knowledge.

Questions to discuss

1.Which factors are to be taken in consideration while choosing our own research method and why?

2.Which research methods exist and which of them are mostly applicable for economics?

Written assignment

Choose a research method to analyze the interrelation between foreign investments and the country’s economic autonomy.

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