Scotland.
Scotland is а country that is part of the United Кingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares а border with England to the south and is bounded bу the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Осеan to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland consists of over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once оnе of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of а large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union.
The Кingdom of Scotland was an independent sovereign state prior to 1 May 1707, upon which date she entered into а political union with the Кingdom of England to create the united Кingdom of Great Britain. This union resulted from the Treaty of Union agreed in 1706 and enacted bу the twin Acts of Union passed bу the Parliaments of both countries, despite widespread protest across Scotland. [16] [17] Scotland's legal system continues to bе separate from those of England, Wales, and Northern Ireland and Scotland stil1 constitutes а distinct jurisdiction in public and in private law. The continued independence of Scots law, the Scottish education system, and the Church of Scotland have all contributed to the continuation of Scottish culture and Scottish national identity since the Union. [19] Although Scotland is nо 10nger а separate sovereign state, the constitutional future of Scotland continues to give rise to debate.
Government and politics
Scotland's head of state is the monarch of the United Кingdom, currently Queen Elizabeth II (since 1952). The title Elizabeth II caused controversy around the time of the queen's coronation, as there had never been an Elizabeth I in Scotland. А legal case, MacCormick v. Lord Advocate (1953 SC 396), was taken to contest the right of the Queen to title herself Elizabeth II within Scot1and, arguing that to do so would bе а breach of Article 1 of the Treaty of Union. The case was lost and it was decided that future British monarchs wou1d bе numbered according to either their English or Scottish predecessors, whichever number is higher.
Scotland has limited self-government within the United Kingdom as well as representation in the UK Parliament. Executive and legislative powers have been devolved to, respectively, the Scottish Government and the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood in Edinburgh. The United Кingdom Parliament retains power over а set list of areas explicit1y specified in the Scotland Act 1998 as reserved matters, including, for example, levels of UK taxes, social security, defence, international relations and broadcasting, with all other matters being devolved.
The Scottish Parliament has legislative authority for all other areas relating to Scotland, as well as limited power to vary income tax, а power it has yet to exercise. The Scottish Parliament can give legislative consent over devolved matters back to Westminster bу passing а Legislative Consent Motion if United Kingdom-wide legislation is considered to bе more appropriate for а certain issue. The programmes of legislation enacted bу the Scottish Parliament have seen а divergence in the provision of public services compared to the rest of the United Kingdom. For instance, the costs of а university education, and care services for the elderly are free at point of use in Scotland, while fees are paid in the rest of the uк. Scotland was the first country in the UK to ban smoking in enclosed public places.
The Scottish Parliament is а unicameral legislature comprising 129 Members, 73 of whom represent individual constituencies and are elected оn а first past the post system; 56 are elected in eight different electoral regions bу the additional member system, serving for а four year period. The Queen appoints one Member of the Scottish Parliament, (MSP), оn the nomination of the Parliament, to bе First Minister. Other Ministers are also appointed bу the Queen оn the nomination of the Parliament and together with the First Minister they make up the Scottish Government, the executive arm of government.
Culture
Scottish music is а significant aspect of the nation's culture, with both traditional and modern influences. А famous traditional Scottish instrument is the Great Highland Bagpipe, а wind instrument consisting of three drones and а melody pipe (called the chanter), which are fed continuously bу а reservoir of air in а bag. Bagpipe bands, featuring bagpipes and various types of drums, and showcasing Scottish music styles while creating new ones, have spread throughout the world. The clársach (harp), fiddle and accordion are also traditional Scottish instruments, the latter two heavily featured in Scottish country dance bands. Today, there are тanу successful Scottish bands and individual artists in varying styles.[139]
Scottish literature includes text written in English, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, French, and Latin. The poet and songwriter Robert Burns wrote in the Scots language, although much of his writing is also in English and in а "light" Scots dialect which is more accessible to а wider audience. Similarly, the writings of Sir Wa1ter Scott and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle were intemationa11y successful during the late 19th and early 20th Centuries[140] J. М. Barrie introduced the movement known as the "Kailyard school" at the end of the 19th century, which brought elements of fantasy and folklore back into fashion[141] This tradition has bееn viewed as а major stumbling block for Scottish literature, as it focused оn an idealised, pastoral picture of Scottish cu1ture.[141] Some modem novelists, such as Irvine Welsh (of Trainspotting fame), write in а distinctly Scottish English that reflects the harsher realities of contemporary life.[142] More recently, author J.K. Rowling has become оnе of the most popular authors in the world (and оnе of the wealthiest) through her Наrrу Potter series, which she began writing from а coffee-shop in Edinburgh.
The national broadcaster is ВВС Scotland (ВВС Alba in Gaelic), а constituent part of the British Broadcasting Corporation, the publicly funded broadcaster of the United Kingdom. it runs two national television stations and the national radio stations, ВВС Radio Scotland and ВВС Radio nan Gaidheal, amongst others. The main Scottish commercial television station is STV. National newspapers such as the Daily Record, The Herald, and The Scotsman are all produced in Scotland.[143] Important regiona1 dailies include The Courier in Dundee in the east, and The Press and Journal serving Aberdeen and the north.[143]
Sport
Sport is an important element in Scottish culture, with the country hosting manу of its own national sporting competitions. It enjoys independent representation at тanу international sporting events including the FIFA World Сup, the Rugby Union World Сup, the Rugby League World Сup, the Cricket World Сup and the Commonwealth Games, but it is not represented at the Olympic Games. Scotland has its own national governing bodies, such as the Scottish Football Association (the second oldest national football association in the world)[144] and the Scottish Rugby Union. Variations of football have bееn played in Scotland for centuries with the earliest reference dating back to 1424.[145] Association football is now the national sport and the Scottish Сup is the world's oldest national trophy.[146] Scotland (and England) fielded the first international football team. Scottish clubs have bееn successful in European competitions with Celtic winning the European Сup in 1967, Rangers and Aberdeen winning the UEF А Сup Winners' Сup in 1972 and 1983 respectively, and Aberdeen also winning the UEF А Super Сup in 1983. The Fife town of St. Andrews is known internationally as
the Ноmе of Golf [147] and to manу golfers the Old Course, an ancient links course dating to before 1574, is considered to bе а site of pilgrimage.[148] There are manу other famous golf courses in Scotland, including Carnoustie, Gleneagles, Muirfield and Royal Troon. Other distinctive features of the national sporting culture include the Highland games, curling and shinty. Scotland played host to the Commonwea1th Games in 1970 and 1986, and will do so again in 2014.
Geography
The main land of Scotland comprises the northern third of the land mass of the island of Great Britain, which lies off the northwest coast of Continental Europe. The total area is 78,772 km2 (30,414 sq mi), comparable to the size of the Czech Republic, making Scotland the 117th largest country in the world. Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for 96 kilometres (60 mi) between the basin of the River Tweed оn the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west. The At1antic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland lies only 30 kilometres (20 mi) from the southwestern peninsula of Kintyre; Norway is 305 kilometres (190 mi) to the east and the Faroes, 270 kilometres (168 mi) to the north.
The territorial extent of Scotland is generally that established bу the 1237 Treaty of York between Scotland and England and the 1266 Treaty of Perth between Scotland and Norway. Important exceptions include the Isle of Man, which having been lost to England in the 14th century is now а crown dependency outside of the United Кingdom; the island groups Orkney and Shetland, which were acquired from Norway in 1472; and Berwick-upon-Tweed, lost to England in 1482.
The geographical centre of Scotland lies а few miles from the village of Newtonmore in Badenoch. Rising to 1,344 metres (4,406 ft) аbоvе sea lеvеl, Scotland's highest point is the summit of Ben Nevis, in Lochaber, while Scotland's longest river, the River Tay, flows for а distance of 190 km (120 miles).
Climate
The climate of Scotland is temperate and oceanic, and tends to bе very changeable. It is warmed bу the Gulf Stream from the Atlantic, and as such has much milder winters (but cooler, wetter summers) than areas оn similar latitudes, for example Labrador, Canada, Moscow, or the Kamchatka Peninsula оn the opposite side of Eurasia. However, temperatures are generally lower than in the rest of the UK, with the coldest ever UK temperature of -27.2 ОС (-16.96 °F) recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, оn 11 February 1895. Winter maximums average 6 ос (42.8 °F) in the 10wlands, with summer maximums averaging 18 ос (64.4 °F). The highest temperature recorded was 32.9 ос (91.220F) at Greycrook, Scottish Borders оn 9 August 2003
In general, the west of Scotland is usually warmer than the east, owing to the influence of Atlantic ocean currents and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea. Tiree, in the Inner Hebrides, is one of the sunniest places in the country: it had 300 days of sunshine in 1975. Rainfall varies widely across Scotland. The western highlands of Scotland are the wettest plасе, with annual rainfal1 exceeding 3,000 mm (120 in). [76] In comparison, much of lowland Scotland receives less than 800 mm (31 in) annually [76] Heavy snowfal1 is not common in the 10wlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Braemar experiences an average of 59 snow days per year, [77] while coastal areas have an average of fewer than 10 days. [76]
Wales.
Wales is а country that is part of the United Кingdom, bordered bу England to its east, and the Atlantic Оcеan and Irish Sea to its west. It is also an elective region of the European Union. Wales has а population estimated at three million and is officially bilingual, with both Welsh and Eng1ish having equal status.
Originally (and traditionally) а Celtic land and оnе of the Celtic nations, а distinct Welsh national identity emerged in the early fifth century, after the Roman withdrawal from Britain. The 13th-century defeat of Llewellyn bу Edward I completed the Anglo-Norman conquest of Wales and brought about centuries of English occupation. Wales was subsequently incorporated into England with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542, creating the legal entity known today as England and Wales. However, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century, and in 1881 the Welsh Sunday Closing Act became the first legislation applied exclusively to Wales. In 1955 Cardiff was proclaimed as national capital and in 1999 the National Assemb1y for Wales was created, which holds responsibility for а range of devolved matters.
The capital Cardiff (Welsh: Caerdydd) is Wales's largest city with 317,500 people. For а period it was the biggest coal port in the world and, for а few years before
World War Оnе, handled а greater tonnage of cargo than either London or Liverpool [7] Two-thirds of the Welsh population live in South Wales, with another concentration in eastern North Wales. Many tourists have bееn drawn to Wales's "wild ... and picturesque" landscapes. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the "land of song", attributable in part to the revival of the eisteddfod tradition. Actors, singers and other artists are celebrated in Wales today, often achieving international success. Cardiff is the largest media centre in the UK outside of London.
Llewellyn the Great foundеd the Principality of Wales in 1216. Just over а hundred years after the Edwardian Conquest, Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence in the early 15th century, to what was to become modem Wales. Traditionally the British Royal Family have bestowed the courtesy title of 'Prince of Wales' upon the heir apparent of the reigning monarch. Wales is sometimes rеfеrrеd to as the 'Principality of Wales', or just the 'principality', although this has nо modem geographical or constitutional basis.
Government and politics
The head of state in Wales, а constituent part of the United Кingdom, is the British monarch Queen Elizabeth N, (since 1952). Executive power is vested in the Queen, and exercised bу Her Majesty's Government at Westminster, with some powers devolved to the Welsh Assemb1y Government in Cardiff. The United Kingdom Parliament retains responsibility for passing primary legislation in Wales, but since the Government of Wales Act 2006 came into effect in 2007, the National Assemb1y for Wales сan request powers to pass primary legislation as Assemb1y Measures оn specific issues. The National Assemb1y is not а sovereign authority, and the UK Parliament could, in theory, overrule or even abolish it at anу time.
The National Assembly was first estab1ished in 1998 under the Government of Wales Act. There are 60 members of the Assemb1y, known as "Assemb1y Members (АМ)". Forty of the AMs are elected under the First Past the Post system, with the other 20 elected via the Additional Member System via regional lists in 5 different regions. The largest party elects the First Minister of Wales, who acts as the head of government. the Welsh Assemb1y Government is the executive arm, and the Assembly has delegated most of its powers to the Assembly Government. The new Assembly Bui1ding designed bу Lord Rogers was opened bу The Queen оn St David's Day (1 March) 2006.
Culture
Wa1es has а distinctive culture including its own language, customs, holidays and music.
Wales is primarily represented bу the symbol of the red Welsh Dragon, but other national emblems include the leek and daffodil. The Welsh words for leeks (cennin) and daffodils (cennin Pedr, lit. "(Saint) Peter's Leeks") are closely related and it is likely that оnе of the symbols camе to bе used due to а misunderstanding for the other оnе, though it is less clear which camе first.
In June 2008, Wales made history bу becoming the first nation in the world to bе awarded Fairtrade Status.
Sport
The most popular sports in Wales are rugby union and football. Wales, like other constituent nations, enjoys independent representation in major world sporting events such as the FIF А World Сup, Rugby World Сup and in the Commonwealth Games (however as Great Britain in the Olympics). As in New Zealand, rugby is а core part of the national identity, although football has traditionally bееn more popular sport in the North Wales, possibly due to its close proximity to England's north-west. Wales has its own governing bodies in rugby, the Welsh Rugby Union and in football, the Football Association of Wales (the third oldest in the world) and most other sports. Many of Wales's top athletes, sportsmen and sportswomen train at the Welsh Institute of Sport and Nationa1 Indoor Athletics Centre in Cardiff, the Wa1es Nationa1 Velodrome in Newport and the Wales National Pool in Swansea.
The Welsh nationa1 rugby union team takes part in the annual Six Nations Championship. Wales has also competed in every Rugby World Сup, hosting the tournament in 1999, with а best result of third place in the inaugura1 competition. Welsh teams also play in the European Heineken Сup and Magners League (rugby union) alongside teams from Ireland and Scotland, the EDF Energy Сup and the European Heineken Сup. The traditional club sides, were replaced in major competitions with four regional sides in 2003 replaced bу the four professiona1 regions (Scarlets, Cardiff Blues, Newport Gwent Dragons and Ospreys) in 2004. The former club sides now operate as semi-professional clubs in their own league, linked to the four regional sides. Wales has produced ten members of the International Rugby Нall of Fame including Gareth Edwards, J.P.R. Williams and Gerald Davies. Newport Rugby Club achieved а historic win over the 'invincible' New Zealand rugby team of 1963, while Llanelli Rugby Club famously beat the АН Blacks in October 1972.
Wa1es has had its own football league since 1992 although, for historical reasons, two Welsh clubs (Cardiff City, and Swansea City) play in the English Football League and another four Welsh clubs in its feeder leagues. (Wrexham, Newport County, Merthyr Tydfil, and Colwyn Bay).
Rugby league is now developing in Wa1es. The Wales national rugby league team was formed in 1907, making them the third o1dest national side. Before 1975 and in the 1980s they have bееn represented bу the Great Britain national rugby league team in the World Сup. They have however competed in the 1975, 1995 and 2000 competitions. In the latter two they reached the Semi-Fina1s. But they didn't qualify for the 2008 tournament, having failed to beat Scotland over two matches. Bridgend based Celtic Crusaders joined National League Two in 2006, were promoted to National League Оnе in 2008, and will play in Super League in 2009. The Crusaders Colts, also based in Bridgend, play in the Rugby League Conference National division. Eight teams compete in the Rugby League Conference Welsh Premier division, which began in 2003. The most successful teams have bееn the Bridgend Blue Bulls and Cardiff Demons.
In international cricket, England and Wales field а single representative team which is administered bу the England and Wales Cricket Board (ЕСВ). There is а separate Wales team that occasiona11y participates in limited-overs domestic competition. Glamorgan County Cricket Club is the only Welsh participant in the
England and Wales County Championship. А Wales team also plays in the English Minor Counties competition. However there has been recent debate as to whether Welsh players (such as Simon Jones) should play for an England team, and not an England and Wales team.
Wales has produced several world class snooker players such as Ray Reardon, Теnу Griffiths, Mark Williams, Matthew Stevens and Ryan Day. Amateur participation in the sport is vеrу high. Тhe rugged terrain of the country also gives opportunities for rally driving and Wales hosts the: finale of the World Rally Championship. Glamorgan compete in county cricket competitions and the Cardiff Devils were once а strong force in British ice hockey. Wales has also produced а number of athletes who have made а mark оn the world stage, including the 110 m hurdler Colin Jackson who is а former world record holder and the winner of numerous Olympic, World and European medals as well as Tanni Grey-Thompson who has won Paralympic gold medals and Marathon victories.
Two Welsh drivers have competed in the Formula One championship: the first was Alan Rees at the 1967 British Grand Prix, who finished in ninth position, four laps behind the winner, Jim Clark. Тот Pryce was the more notable of the two drivers, as he finished on the podium twice and, at the 1975 British Grand Prix, qualified in pole position. Pryce's career was cut short after he collided with volunteer marshal, Jansen Van Vuuren, killing both instantly. As wel1 as Formula One, Wales have had some notability in the World Rally Championship, producing two championship winning Co-Drivers, those being Nicky Grist, who helped Colin McRae to victory in 1995 and PЫl Mills who helped Petter Solberg win the 2003 title. Wales hosts the British and final leg of the World Rally Championship.
Since 2006, Wales has had its own professional golf tour, the Dragon Tour. Notable Welsh golfers include Brian Huggett, Ian Woosnam, Bradley Dredge and Phillip Price. The Celtic Manor in Newport will host the 2010 Ryder Сup.
Media
Cardiff is home to the Welsh national media. ВВС Wales is based in Llandaff, Cardiff and produces Welsh-oriented output for ВВС One and ВВС Two channels. ВВС 2W is the Welsh digital version of ВВС Two, and broadcasts between 8.30pm and 10pm each week night for specific Wales based programming. IТV the UK's main commercial broadcaster has а Welsh-oriented service branded as ITV Wales, whose studios are in Culverhouse Cross, Cardiff. S4C, based in Llanishen, Cardiff, broadcasts mostly Welsh-language programming at peak hours, but shares English-language content with Channel 4 at other times. S4C Digidol (S4C Digital), оn the other hand, broadcasts mostly in Welsh. Channel 4 and Channel 5 are now available in most parts of the country via digital television and satellite.
ВВС Radio Wales is Wales's only national English-language radio station, while ВВС Radio Cymry broadcasts throughout Wales in Welsh. There аrе also а number of independent radio stations across Wales including Red Dragon FM, The Wave, Swansea Sound, Marcher Sound, Nation Radio, Coast FM, 102.5 Radio Pembrokeshire, 97.1 Radio Carmarthenshire, Champion 103, Radio Ceredigion and Real Radio (Wales).
Most of the newspapers sold and read in Wales аге national newspapers sold and read throughout Britain, unlike in Scotland where many newspapers have rebranded into Scottish based titles. Wales-based newspapers include: South Wales Echo, South Wales Argus, South Wales Evening Post, Liverpool Daily Post (Welsh edition) and Y Cymro, а Welsh language publication. The Western Мail is the main indigenous daily newspaper in South Wales and includes а Sunday edition Wales оn Sunday. Both are published bу the UK's largest newspaper corporation, Trinity Мinоr. The Western Мail and South Wales Echo have their offices in Thomson House, Cardiff city centre.
Music
The principal Welsh festival of music and poetry is the National Eisteddfod. This takes plасе annually in а different town or city. The Llangollen International Eisteddfod echoes the National Eisteddfod but provides an opportunity for the singers and musicians of the world to perform.
Wales is often rеfеrrеd to as "the land of song", [67] being particularly famous for harpists, таlе voice choirs, and so10 artists including Sir Geraint Evans, Dame Gwyneth Jones, Dame Anne Evans, Dame Margaret Price, Ivor Novello, John Cale, Sir Тот Jones, Charlotte Church, Bonnie Tyler, Bryn Terfel, Donna Lewis, Mary Hopkin, Katherine Jenkins, Meic Stevens, Dame Shirley Bassey, Duffy and Aled Jones.
Indie bands like the Manic Street Preachers, Catatonia, Stereophonics, Feeder, Super Furry Animals, and Gorky's Zygotic Mynci, in the 1990s, and later Goldie Lookin' Chain, mclusky, The Automatic, Steveless and Los Campesinos! have emerged from Wales. Other, less mainstream bands have emerged from Wales, such as Skindred, The Blackout, Lostprophets, Кids In Glass Houses, Bullet For My Valentine, Funeral for а Friend and were preceded bу Man in the 1970s. The Beatles-nurtured power pop group Badfinger also has its roots in Wales (both the founder Peter Наm and drummer Mike Gibbins from Swansea). Another famous Welsh singer is pop icon Jem who has recorded songs for/performed оn TV programmes such as Las Vegas and The ОС, and movies such as Eragon. The popular New Wave/synthpop group Scritti Politti was а vehicle for singer/songwriter and Cardiff native Green Gartside.
The Welsh traditional and folk music scene is in resurgence with performers and bands such as Crasdant, Canеg Lafar, Fernhill, Sifu1 James, Robin Huw Bowen, Llio Rhydderch, KilBride and Тhe Hennessys. Traditional music and dance in Wales is supported bу а myriad of societies. Welsh Folk Song Society (Cymdeithas Alawon Gwerin Cymru) has published а number of collections of songs and tunes. The Welsh Folk Dance Society (Cymdeithas Ddawns Werin Cymru) supports а network of national amateur dance teams and publishes support material. Clear (Traditional instruments society) runs workshops to promote the harp, telyn deires (triple harp), fiddle, crwth, pibgorn (hornpipe) and other instruments. The Cerdd Dant Society promotes its specific singing art primarily through an annual one-day festival. The traditional music development agency, trac, runs projects in communities throughout Wales and advocates оn behalf of traditional music. There are also societies for Welsh hymnology, oral history, small eisteddfodau, oral history, and poetry.
Geography
Wales is located оn а peninsula in central-west Great Britain. Its area is about 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi) about the same size as Massachusetts, Slovenia or ЕI Salvador and about а quarter of the size of Scotland. It is about 274 km (170 miles) north-south and 97 km (60 miles) east-west. Wales is bordered bу England to the east and bу sea in the other three directions: the Môr Hafren (Bristol Channel) to the south, St. George's Channel to the west, and the Irish Sea to the north. Altogether, Wales has over 1,200 km (750 miles) of coastline. There are several islands off the Welsh mainland, the largest being Ynys Мôn (Anglesey) in the northwest.
Climate
Highest maximum temperature: 35.2 ос (95.4 °F) at Hawarden Bridge, Flintshire оn 2 August 1990.
Lowest minimum temperature: -23.3 ос (-10°F) at Rhayader, Radnorshire оn 21 January 1940.[47]
Maximum number of hours of sunshine in а month: 354.3 hours at Dale Fort, Pembrokeshire in July 1955.
Minimum number of hours of sunshine in а month: 2.7 hours at Llwynon, Brecknockshire in January 1962.
Maximum rainfall in а day (0900 UTC - 0900 UTC): 211 mm (8.30 inches) at Rhondda, Glamorgan, оn 11 November 1929.