Английский учебник

Text 15 . Meat grading

Meat is first divided into primal cuts. These are basic sections from which steaks and other subdivisions are cut. Since the animal's legs and neck muscles do the most work, they are the toughest; the meat becomes progressively more tender as distance from "hoof and horn" increases. The closer to the middle back, the more tender the meat. There are different systems of naming for cuts in America, Britain and France.

American cuts of beef.

The following is a list of the American primal cuts, ordered front to back, then top to bottom. The short loin and the sirloin are sometimes considered as one section.

American Primal cuts

Upper Half

1.Chuck — one of the most common sources for hamburgers.

2.Rib — Short ribs, rib eye steak.

3.Short Loin — from which porterhouse steaks are cut.

4.Sirloin — less tender than short loin, but more flavorful.

5.Tenderloin — the most tender, from which filet mignon is severed.

6.Top sirloin

6а. Bottom sirlion

7. Round — lean cut, moderately tough. Lack of fat and marbling does not allow round steak to tenderize quickly.

Lower Half

8. Brisket — often associated with barbecue beef brisket.

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9.Shank — used primarily for stews and soups, but is not usually served another way, due to it being the toughest of the cuts.

10.Plate — produces types of steak such as the skirt steak and hanger steak. It is typically a cheap, tough, and fatty meat.

11.Flank — Long and flat, the flank steak's best known application is London Broil. One of the most affordable steaks on the market, it is substantially tougher than the loin and rib steaks, therefore many flank recipes use marinades or moist cooking methods such as braising.

British Primal cuts

British cuts of beef.

1.Neck & Clod

2.Chuck & Blade

3.Sirloin

4.Rump

5.Silverside

6.Topside

7.Thick Rib

8.Thin Rib

9.Rib

10.Brisket

11.Shin

12.Flank

13.Thick Flank

14.Leg

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The method of cooking beef is largely determined by the cut of beef to be cooked. For example, tender (and generally more expensive) cuts of meat benefit from fast, high-heat cooking while tough cuts benefit from a slower and longer cooking method.

Tender cuts of beef from the loin and rib are best cooked via dry cooking methods, such as charcoal grilling, broiling, roasting, and sautéing.

Grilling: Grilling is characterized by cooking the beef over a high heat source; generally in excess of 650°F (343°C). This leads to searing of the surface of the beef, which creates a flavorful crust. In Australia, Canada and the UK grilling is also known as "Barbecuing".

Broiling: Broiling is similar to grilling, except where grilling is performed with the heat source under the beef, broiling is usually performed in an oven with the heat source above the beef. In the UK and Australia, broiling is known as "grilling".

Roasting: Roasting is a particularly British way of cooking meat which produces the iconic British dish - Roast beef. British roasting is very similar to American broiling, although the heating is from hot air and the meat is cooked all around. Little if any liquid is added. The liquid produced during cooking is decanted from the fat and usually made into a gravy to serve with the sliced beef.

Carpaccio: Raw beef from the finest cuts may be prepared with the option of searing the sides of the fillet for a few seconds before thinly slicing. This may be served with lemon slices, which when squeezed over the raw beef 'cooks' it.

Stirfry: Mainly a Chinese way of cooking. Cooking oil with agents such as garlic, ginger and onions are added to the wok which are brought to high heat. Then slices of beef (or any other type of meat) which generally cooks longer are added in. Finally the side ingredients of mixed vegetables are added in to cook for a few minutes. This method of cooking emphasizes on the timing of cooking where the result would be both the meat and vegetables 'just cook'.

Tougher cuts of beef from the round, brisket, flank, plate, shank, and chuck are best cooked by moist heat cooking methods, such as braising, potroasting, and stewing. (Some of the tougher cuts may be prepared by dry heat methods given they are tenderized first with a marinade).

Stewing: Stewing involves immersing the entire cut of beef in a liquid. Braising: Braising involves cooking meats, covered, with small amounts

of liquids (usually seasoned or flavored). Unlike stewing, meat cooked via braising is not fully immersed in liquid.

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Text 16 .Cooking temperature of meat

Beef is cooked (roughly) on the following scale, based on the internal temperature of the meat:

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Text 17. Organic Beef

According to the USDA rules passed on October 2002, certified organic beef must come from a fully verifiable production system that collects information on the history of every animal in the program, including its breed history, veterinary care, and feed. Further, to be certified as organic, all cattle should meet the following criteria:

•Born and raised on certified organic pasture

•Never receive antibiotics

•Never receive growth-promoting hormones

•Are fed only certified organic grains and grasses

•Must have unrestricted outdoor access

•Must receive humane treatment

Organic vs. Natural

With the arrival of the Organic label, many people wrongly assumed that

the terms “organic” and “natural” were interchangeable, failing to understand the strict regulations required to raise certified organic beef. The USDA defines “natural” beef as all meats raised for human consumption without additives and minimally processed. Natural Beef producers may choose not to use antibiotics or growth-promoting hormones, but there is no third-party verification system required by the USDA. Beef from factory feed lots can be labeled natural, ac-

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cording to the USDA’s definition.

Grass-fed or Grain finished?

As organic cattle approach market weight, there are two feeding methods that producers most commonly use to deliver beef products to their customers: Grass-Fed and Grain-Fed. In the grass-fed program, the cattle continue to eat certified organic grass right up to the time of slaughtering. The USDA is currently developing guideline to define the term Grass-Fed, and it is expected to call for an all grass diet of at least 95%. Among the first certified organic grassfed beef companies was Mesquite Organic Foods, when founder, cardiologist Steve Atcly realized his patients needed a source of leaner beef for their diets. Strictly grass-fed cattle tend to be leaner and to some, less flavorful than grainfed. Grain finishing is more common in the industry as it produces to many consumers a more flavorful cattle with a higher percentage of fat. All grains must be certified organic to ensure the integrity of the program. One example being Dakota Beef 100%, an industry-dominating example of this type of operation. Headquartered in Howard, South Dakota, the company is the largest vertically integrated organic beef producer in the nation. By overseeing all steps of production, it can ensure that its cattle are in compliance with the National Organic Program (NOP) throughout their lives. It has developed a grain-based feeding formula to deliver a well-marbled product that delivers superior taste.

Some American beef producers are expanding into the organic beef niche by importing boxed beef from South America.. While this is in technical accordance with the rules of the National Organic Program, it does not follow the spiritual status quo of the American organic movement. To make way for more pasture to raise cattle, great swaths of South American rainforest. have been clear-cut, which puts South American beef at a disadvantage because most consumers don't want to be indirectly responsible for deforestation. Additionally, the ecological advantage of raising cattle on clean land without added chemical inputs in their feed is greatly diminished when the beef is shipped within the range of approximately 5,000 to 10,000 miles (8,000 to 16,000 km) to reach American markets.

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Text 18. Genetic biotechnologies in fisheries and aquaculture

Biotechnology in fisheries and aquaculture represents a range of technologies that present opportunities to increase growth rate in farmed species, to improve nutrition of aquafeeds, to improve fish health, to help restore and protect environments, to extend the range of aquatic species and to improve management and conservation of wild stocks. Some biotechnologies are simple with a long history of application, e.g. fertilization of ponds to increase feed availability, while others are more advanced and take advantage of increased knowl-

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edge of molecular biology and genetics, e.g. genetic engineering and DNA disease diagnosis.

Genetic biotechnologies in aquaculture focus primarily on increasing growth rate, but also address increased disease resistance and increased environmental tolerance and include simple techniques, e.g. hybridization, to the transfer of specific genes between species (GMOs). The improvement in knowledge of breeding requirements and the ability to artificially induce breeding through the administering of natural or synthetic hormones and/or environmental manipulations (for example, changing photoperiod or water temperature can induce some fish to spawn) has been a key factor that has facilitated the application of more advanced biotechnologies: selective breeding, and the maintenance of other stocks genetically improved by chromosome manipulation, line crossing, or sex reversal all depend on controlled breeding of the farmed species. These improvements in reproductive technologies have also assisted aquaculturists greatly in their efforts to domesticate aquatic species. In addition, by making it possible to remove the natural constraints and timing of breeding, farmers are able to mate many more species at the times that are most beneficial, and thus help to ensure a steady and consistent supply of fish to the market. Molecular genetic techniques are also being used in fish health management to create vaccines and to provide extremely sensitive DNA probes for disease diagnosis.

In fishery management, gene and genotype frequency data can provide information on, inter alia, species identification, population stock structure, hybridisation and gene flow. These genetic data can provide information on key aspects of fishery management such as, i) an identification of the resource, ii) the breeding or stock structure of the resource, iii) an estimate of the size of the resource, and iv) the identification of key habitat that the resource requires.

Genetic biotechnologies can be used in conservation programmes, i) to reduce the impacts of farmed fish on wild populations, e.g. by making farmed fish sterile, ii) to identify and manage endangered species, and iii) to manage genetic resources of captive populations in aquaria or in species recovery programmes, e.g. to avoid inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity.

A key consideration in transferring genetic technologies to the aquaculture sector is that they should be applied in an environmentally sound manner with due protection of native aquatic diversity. In addition, the social impact of genetic technology transfer should be considered in how it affects the autonomy and economy of rural populations.

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Text 19. Dairy

A dairy is a facility for the extraction and processing of animal milk— mostly from goats or cows, but also from buffalo, sheep, horses, or camels —for

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human consumption.

As an adjective, the word dairy describes milk-based products and processes, for example dairy cattle, dairy goat. A dairy farm produces milk and a dairy factory processes it into a variety of dairy products.

In New Zealand a dairy means a comer shop, milk bar or Superette and dairy factory is the term for what is elsewhere a dairy.

In the UK a dairy is a processing facility that turns milk into a range of products.

In the U.S. a dairy can be the storage and processing facility for milk, the facility that processes and distributes the milk or the store that sells milk, butter, cheese and suchlike.

History

Milk-producing animals have been domesticated for thousands of years. Initially they were part of the subsistence farming that nomads engaged in. As the community moved about the country so did their animals accompany them. Protecting and feeding the animals were a big part of the symbiotic relationship between the animal and the herder.

In the more recent past, people in agricultural societies owned dairy animals that they milked for domestic or local (village) consumption, a typical example of a cottage industry. The animals might serve multiple purposes (for example, as a draught animal for pulling a plough as a youngster and at the end of its useful life as meat). In this case the animals were normally milked by hand and the herd size was quite small so that all of the animals could be milked in less than an hour—about 10 per milker.

With industrisation and urbanisation the supply of milk became a commercial industrie with specialised breeds of cow being developed for dairy, as distinct from beef or draught animals. Initially more people were employed as milkers but it soon turned to mechanisation with machines designed to do the milking.

Historically, the milking and the processing took place close together in space and time: on a dairy farm. People milked the animals by hand; on farms where only small numbers are kept hand-milking may still be practiced. Handmilking is accomplished by grasping the teats (often pronounced tit or tits) in the hand and expressing milk either by squeezing the fingers progressively, from the udder end to the tip, or by squeezing the teat between thumb and index finger then moving the hand downward from udder towards the end of the teat. The action of the hand or fingers is designed to close off the milk duct at the udder (upper) end and, by the movement of the fingers, close the duct progressively to the tip to express the trapped milk. Each half or quarter of the udder is emptied one milk-duct capacity at a time.

The stripping action is repeated, using both hands for speed. Both methods result in the milk that was trapped in the milk duct being squirted out the end into a bucket that is supported between the knees (or rests on the

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ground) of the milker, who usually sits on a low stool.

Traditionally the cow, or cows, would stand in the field or paddock while being milked. Young stock, heifers, would have to be trained to remain still to be milked. In many countries the cows were tethered to a post and milked. The problem with this method is that it relies on quiet, tractable beasts, because the hind end of the cow is not restrained.

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Text 20. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the USA.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is responsible for the safety regulation of most types of foods, dietary supplements, drugs, vaccines, biological medical products, blood products, medical devices, radiation-emitting devices, veterinary products, and cosmetics. The FDA also enforces section 361 of the Public Health Service Act and the associated regulations, including sanitation requirements on interstate travel as well as specific rules for control of disease on products ranging from pet turtles to semen donations for assisted reproductive medicine techniques.

The FDA is headed by Commissioner Andrew von Eschenbach, who was confirmed by the Senate on December 7, 2006 after serving as Acting Commissioner for fourteen months. Von Eschenbach succeeded Lester Crawford, who resigned on September 23, 2005, just two months after his final Senate confirmation.

The programs for FDA safety regulation vary widely by the type of product, its potential risks, and the regulatory powers granted to the agency. For example, the FDA regulates almost every facet of prescription drugs, including testing, manufacturing, labeling, advertising, marketing, efficacy and safety. It regulates other products with a set of published standards enforced with a modest number of facilities inspections.

The Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition is the branch of the FDA which is responsible for ensuring the safety and accurate labeling of nearly all food products in the United States. One exception is products derived from traditional domesticated animals, such as cattle and chickens, which fall under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service. Products which contain minimal amounts of meat are regulated by FDA, and the exact boundaries are listed in a memorandum of understanding between the two agencies. However, medicines and other products given to all domesticated animals are regulated by FDA through a different branch, the Center for Veterinary Medicine. Other consumables which are not regulated by the FDA include beverages containing more than 7% alcohol (regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives in the De-

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partment of Justice), and non-bottled drinking water (regulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)).

The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 mandated that the FDA regulate dietary supplements as foods, rather than as drugs. Therefore, dietary supplements are not subject to safety and efficacy testing and there are no approval requirements. FDA can take action against dietary supplements only after they are proven to be unsafe. Manufacturers of dietary supplements are permitted to make specific claims of health benefits, referred to as "structure or function claims" on the labels of these products. They may not claim to treat, diagnose, cure, or prevent disease and must include a disclaimer on the label.

Bottled water is regulated in America by the FDA. State governments also regulate bottled water. Tap water is regulated by state and local regulations, as well as the United States EPA. FDA regulations of bottled water generally follow the guidelines established by the EPA, and new EPA rules automatically apply to bottled water if the FDA does not release an explicit new rule. Water bottlers in the US are subject to inspection similar to other food firms, but quality controls for the bottled water industry are not nearly as stringent as those for municipal water supplies.

Since the 1990s, many successful new drugs for the treatment of cancer, autoimmune diseases, and other conditions have been protein-based biotechnology drugs, regulated by the Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research. Many of these drugs are extremely expensive; for example, the anti-cancer drug Avastin costs $55,000 for a year of treatment, while the enzyme replacement therapy drug Cerezyme costs $200,000 per year, and must be taken by Gaucher's Disease patients for life. Biotechnology drugs do not have the simple, readily verifiable chemical structures of conventional drugs, and are produced through complex, often proprietary techniques, such as transgenic mammalian cell cultures. Because of these complexities, the 1984 Hatch-Waxman Act did not include biologics in the Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) process, essentially precluding the possibility of generic drug competition for biotechnology drugs. In February of 2007, identical bills were introduced into the House and Senate with bipartisan cosponsorship to create an ANDA process for the approval of generic biologics. The bills face opposition from biologic drug manufacturers, and other lawmakers are working to create compromise legislation.

The FDA has regulatory oversight over a large array of products that affect the health and life of American citizens. As a result, the FDA's powers and decisions are carefully monitored by several governmental and nongovernmental organizations. There are many criticisms and complaints lodged against the FDA from patients, economists, regulatory bodies, and the pharmaceutical industry.

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Text 21. History of the FDA

Up until the 20th century, there were few federal laws regulating the contents and sale of domestically produced food and pharmaceuticals, with one exception being the short-lived Vaccine Act of 1813. A patchwork of state laws provided varying degrees of protection against unethical sales practices, such as misrepresenting the ingredients of food products or therapeutic substances. The history of the FDA can be traced to the latter part of the 19th century and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Division of Chemistry (later Bureau of Chemistry). Under Harvey Washington Wiley, appointed chief chemist in 1883, the Division began conducting research into the adulteration and misbranding of food and drugs on the American market. Although they had no regulatory powers, the Division published its findings from 1887 to 1902 in a ten-part series entitled Foods and Food Adulterants. Wiley used these findings, and alliances with diverse organizations such as state regulators, the General Federation of Women's Clubs, and national associations of physicians and pharmacists, to lobby for a new Federal law to set uniform standards for food and drugs to enter into interstate commerce. Wiley's advocacy came at a time when the public had become aroused to hazards in the marketplace by muckraking journalists like Upton Sinclair, and became part of a general trend for increased Federal regulations in matters pertinent to public safety during the Progressive Era. The 1902 Biologics Control Act was put in place after tetanus antitoxin was collected from a horse named Jim who also had diphtheria, resulting in several deaths.

In June 1906, President Theodore Roosevelt signed into law the Food and Drug Act, also known as the "Wiley Act" after its chief advocate. The Act prohibited, under penalty of seizure of goods, the interstate transport of food which had been "adulterated", with that term referring to the addition of fillers of reduced "quality or strength", coloring to conceal "damage or inferiority," formulation with additives "injurious to health," or the use of "filthy, decomposed, or putrid" substances. The act applied similar penalties to the interstate marketing of "adulterated" drugs, in which the "standard of strength, quality, or purity" of the active ingredient was not either stated clearly on the label or listed in the United States Pharmacopoeia or the National Formulary. The act also banned "misbranding" of food and drugs. The responsibility for examining food and drugs for such "adulteration" or "misbranding" was given to Wiley's USDA Bureau of Chemistry.

Wiley used these new regulatory powers to pursue an aggressive campaign against the manufacturers of foods with chemical additives, but the Chemistry Bureau's authority was soon checked by judicial decisions, as well as by the creation of the Board of Food and Drug Inspection and the Referee Board of Consulting Scientific Experts as separate organizations within the USDA in 1907 and 1908 respectively. A 1911 Supreme Court decision ruled that the 1906 act did not apply to false claims of therapeutic efficacy, in response to which a

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