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Scientific Newsletter of Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Education Agency

SCIENTIFIC NEWSLETTER

Voronezh State University

of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Series “Modern linguistic and

methodical-and-didactic researches”

CONTENTS

Fomina Z. Ye. Introductory Remarks of the Editor-in-Chief of the Series «Modern Linguistic

Fomina Z.Ye. Prolegomens of “the Gay Science” (‘’the Joyful science’’) by Friedrich Nietzsche

Lavrinenko I.Yu. Peculiarities of Verbal Explication of the Intellectual Concept “Mind” in the Philosophical Picture of the World of F. Bacon (on the Material of the Scientific Treatises of F.

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Scientific Newsletter of Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Z. Ye. Fomina: Inroductory Remarks of Editor-in chief of the Scientific Newsletter «Modern Linguistic and Methodical-and-didactic Researches»

Issue 3 (10) of the linguistic Series of Scientific Newsletter contains the following secions: ”Linguistics”, “Methods and Didactics of Teaching Foreign Languages”, “Intercultural Communication”, “Theory and

Practice of Translation”. The 10-th Series involves 13 papers

THE LINGUISTIC SECTION reflects theoretically and practically important results of the researches of scientists on the problems of mythopoetics, cognitive linguistics, comparative and semantic-and- functional syntax, system functional linguistics and others.

A significant fact for this issue is publishing the article of T.V. Toporova, a famous scientist, Doctor in Philology, a leading scientific officer of the German sector of the Linguistics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is a great pleasure and honor for us to be able to

publish T. V. Toporova` s article in our journal. As one of the most significant and well-known researchers of the mythopoetic model of the world, she devotes her paper to cross-genre analysis of designating water in Old Icelandic epic - "Elder Edda" and in old Germanic metric charms. The author concludes that the differences in the designation of water in epos and charms do not have a fundamental nature. According to the author, they are "connected with various sources of forming a positive image of water belonging to a fundamentally different stages of developing thinking: if in the Eddic model of the world the improvement of the water image was influenced by its role in the cosmogenesis, in particular, the interpretation of water as a primodial in cosmogonic myth and a creative substance from which the first man Ymir was created, then in charms the analogous role was played by the Christian ideology, "having consecrated" water. "

The subject of the study by Doctor in Philology, prof. Z.Ye. Fomina (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering) is prolegomena of "Gay Science" by Friedrich Nietzsche, which are identified and analyzed in terms of their metaphorical categorization. Such basic cognitive-and-gnosiological essences are investigated as a philosopher, philosophy, intellect, thought, life, knowledge, the concept of "Gay Science" itself. The above constructs are examined in close correlation with the dialectical phenomenon "fun," and are studied as culturally significant thoughts objectified by gestalt metaphors. A methodological algorithm of creating Nietzsche`s metaphors is investigated and quantitative peculiarities of their ontological structure (polimetaphors, monometaphors, secundarn, tertiar and other types of metaphors) are found out. The dominant definitional schemes forming the cognitive basis of Nietzsche`s metaphors are described, epistemological functions of metaphor, etc. are singled out.

The problem of verbal explication of the intellectual concept "mind" in F. Bacon`s philosophical picture of the world is the theme of the article by I.Yu. Lavrinenko, Ph.D. in Philology, Senior Lecturer (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering). The material for the research was F.Bacon`s scientific treatises «The Great Instauration» and «New Organon». The author reveals the dominant components of the sought-for construct “mind” on the basis of semantic-and-cognitive analysis of the lexemes, objectifying the concept “mind”. According to the author`s observations, the concept «mind» has a complex, multi-component structure. Mind in the philosophical discourse of F. Bacon, as the researcher believes, is the phenomenon of applied nature involved in the process of activity. The applied character of mind defined by physical-and-geometrical parameters (strength, depth) is revealed. In the author`s opinion one of the most frequent features of the concept «mind» are the dualistic characteristics on the “effectiveness-ineffectiveness”, “strength-weakness” vector.

The research field of a well-known German scientist Frank Kostrzewa, Doctor in Philology, Professor of Karlsruhe Pedagogical Institute, our friend and colleague, is the study of relative subordinate clause in linguistic contrast. The research interest of Professor F. Kostrzewa in-

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cludes anglistics, koreanistics, didactics, German as a foreign language, German as a second language and others. His numerous works are characterized by high demand and are of great interest to the world community of linguists. We express our deep gratitude to Frank Kostrzewa for a long-term scientific cooperation with our journal.

Frank Kostrzewa considers relative subordinate clause and its linguistic realization by the example of the four languages: German, Korean, Japanese and Chinese. The author draws a distinction between restricting and non-restricting relative clauses, as well as their semantic and pragmatic functions. According to his observations, the particular features of Korean and Japanese relative clauses derive from the status of these languages as agglutinating languages following the Right-hand head rule. Particularities of the relative sentence structure in Chinese are illustrated on the basis of the specific topic-rhema-progression.

O.I. Shapovalova`s work (Voronezh State University) is done within the frames of seman- tic-functional syntax. It is devoted to studying numerical sentences expressing indefinite quantity. On the basis of the research carried out, the author states that in the quantitative relation the number of units having the meaning "a great indefinite quantity” exceeds the number of units expressing semantic feature "a few." Using a wide range of "substitutes" of numeral complements and extends the ways of expressing indefinite quantity.

The results of the current methodical-and-didactic studies are represented in the Section "METHODS AND DIDACTICS OF TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES." The section presents the papers by N.Yu. Fedorova, Ph.D. in Pedagogy, Associate professor (Russian State Hydrometeorological University) and E.Yu. Novikova, Ph.D. in Philology, Associate Professor (Volgograd State University). The article by N. Fedorova presents the results of the research aimed at improving the effectiveness of professionally oriented textbooks for foreign languages for university students. The author proposes an algorithm for developing textbooks for training students of higher education professionally oriented foreign language, which includes four stages: definition of the initial data; planning a conception of a textbook; implementation; assessment and correction. Associate Professor E.Yu. Novikova analyzes the discourse-determined specific character of video excursion and video guide in comparative aspect. The researcher concludes that the effectiveness of the excursion communication depends on the guide`s personality type, culture-determined traditions in verbal and non-verbal representation of one or another genre.

The Section "INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION" presents three articles: by I.V. Guyduk, Ph.D. in Philology, Associate Professor, a postgraduate student N.Yu. Byessonov, a postgraduate student Suhad J.Mohammed Al-Sammarraie. Irina V. Guyduk (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering) considers that among the most essential properties of modern mass communication it is necessary to single out: intertextuality, imagery, language setting on the game and the emotional impact on an addressee. Substantiating the relevance of the research, the author rightly notes that "anthroponyms form a mosaic era, behind them there is a picture of the world, events and people, their actions, and the evaluation of these actions." I. Guyduk explores precedent names and their derivatives in the Russian and American media discourse. The author concludes that precedent names appear in the materials of the media as maximally reduced constants that may be considered as precedent concepts, i.e. as the mentalverbal units required for presentation, categorization, conceptualization and evaluation of the validity of the construction of the world picture and its fragments.

Nikita Y. Byessonov (Donetsk National University, Faculty of foreign languages, department of Germanic Philology) studies causative constructions in the English and Ukrainian languages with the linking verbs 'make', 'ROBITI' (робити) and 'primushuvati' (примушувати). On the basis of the research carried out, the author defines isomorphic and allomorphic semantic attributes of causative linking verbs as the main elements expressing causative relations in causative constructions in the English and Ukrainian languages. The results of the study obtained by N.Yu.Bessonov have significance both in linguistic and in linguoculturological aspect.

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Scientific Newsletter of Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Postgraduate student Suhad J. Mohammed Al-Sammarraie (Voronezh State Pedagogical University) devotes his research to an urgent problem of updating scientific metalanguage of a literary text and its development, in particular, in the perspective of the author's study of multimodality. The article identifies and describes meaning, linguoculturological, gender, linguistic, discursive, functional and aesthetic parameters of T. Morrison's novel "Beloved", as well as the specific features of the author's multimodality characteristic of this work.

The Section "THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION" contains the articles by V.V. Kozlova, Ph.D. in Philology, Senior Lecturer (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering) and by postgraduate student E.S. Logvina (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering). The subject of V.V.Kozlova`s paper is metatext as a means of filling lacuna. The author concludes that metatext in M.A. Bulgakov`s French translations of prose acts as a way of eliminating the four types of lacuna: ethnographic, socio-cultural, associative, stylistic ones. The appearance of the lacuna is conditioned by the specific character of a literary text as a special product of the author's intention and poetics, as well as by the specific nature of metatextual communication being the result of creative activity of a translator.

The article by E.S. Logvina (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering) is devoted, on the one hand, to revealing peculiarities of implementing the category of intertextuality in John Fowles`s novel "The Magus", and, on the other hand, to defining the specific character of its translation into Russian. It was found that the dominant form of implementing the category of intertextuality in this work is allusion, followed by a proper name, which became a precedent text, and citations. Intertextual study of inclusions in the translation aspect is one of the promising areas of modern linguistics.

The Section "SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION" presents information by V.I. Chechetka,

Ph.D. in Philology, Associate Professor (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering) and L.A. Erofeeva, Ph.D. in Philology, Associate Professor (Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering). V.I. Chechetko informs on holding the V-th International scientific conference "Language and Intercultural Communication", held in Minsk (May 19-20, 2015) and in Vilnius (May 21-23, 2015). The scientific information of L. Erofeeva summarizes the results of the German-Russian conference "Popularization of Science and Real Economy: the Ways Towards?" held in the city of Tyumen (April 2729, 2015) for graduates of German programs.

This issue includes scientific works both of native scientists working at different universities and cities of our country, in particular, in Moscow (Institute of Linguistics,Russian Akademie of Sciences (RAS), St. Petersburg (Russian State Hydrometeorological University, St. Petersburg State University, faculty of Sociology, St. Petersburg State University of Film and Television, St. Petersburg Orthodox Theological Academy), Volgograd (Volgograd State University), Voronezh (Voronezh State University; Voronezh Pedagogical University; Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering), and foreign scientists (Germany, Karlsruhe University of Education, Pedagogical Institute, Iraq (the city of Tikrit) including researchers from the CIS countries (Ukraine, Donetsk National University).

It is important to stress that the research results presented in the articles of this Newsletter are based on the material of many languages of the world, in particular, in English, German, French, Russian, Ukrainian, Korean, Japanese, Chinese and others. Extended studies of scientific issues are demonstrated by various trends such as modern linguistics, methodology and didactics, intercultural communication, theory and practice of translation, as well as by a wide range of different types of considered discourses (mythopoetical, philosophical, arts, tourist, media discourse, etc.) in the framework of which there are carried out investigation of our much-esteemed authors.

It is characteristic, that this Scientific Newsletter publishes the results of current researches carried out at the support of native and foreign scientific funds. Thus, the study of E.Y. Novikova, Ph.D. in Philology, Associate Professor was done at the financial support of the Rus-

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sian Humane Fund, the regional competition "The Volga Lands in the History and Culture of Russia", project № 15-14-34001 Linguistic and translyatologic logistics of Multilanguage Inter- net-portal: regional guide to the coordinates of globalization (Volgograd and Volgograd region ).

We believe that this Series (10-th) will be interesting and useful for a great number of philologists, teachers of foreign languages, specialists in study of literature and culture, philosophers, post-graduate students, as well as for all our respected native and foreign readers.

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Scientific Newsletter of Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

LINGUISTICS

UDC 82.091

Institute of linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor in Philology, Leading Research Officer of

the German Sector of the Institute

of linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Tatyana Vladimirovna Toporova

e-mail: t1960@list.ru

T.V. Toporova

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DESIGNATIONS OF WATER IN THE ELDER EDDA

AND OLD GERMANIC CHARMS

We make a cross-genre study of designations of water in the Old Icelandic epic poem Elder Edda and Old Germanic metric charms. Each lexeme is described according to the standard scheme: “text’s grammar” (case, number), attributes, predicates, syntactic functions, synonyms, antonyms, and commentaries identifying common elements in the structure of the content. We show that the nominative singular is most common in the paradigm of designations of water and that the syntactic function of the s u b j e c t dominates over predicates. In other words, water is treated as a unique phenomenon that acts. We also reconstruct the mythologem of the “fish in water” that refers to a theme of the “main myth” about the struggle between the Thunder God and his foe. This shows the ambivalence of water in the mythopoetic model of the universe.

Key words: the epic word, the charm, the cross-genre analysis, the text’s grammar, the syntactic function, the mythopoetic model of the universe.

Epic word could not fail to attract attention of specialists as a reflection of an archaic mythopoetic model of the world; in recent few decades “the texto-centric” approach1 dominates when it is studied in the immediate environment of its existence in the concrete work. In this case the object of the analysis is the individual usage of the semantics established on the basis of the c o n t e x t understood very broadly as “all the categories of artistic texts, which influence the formation and actualization of lexical-and-semantic identities and differences in it [3, p. 29]”. Lexicological studies from the positions of “the text grammar”2 of a wide range of concepts (houses, sacrificial communities/places for sacrifices, ways-roads, forests-trees, field-meadows- pastures, water, mountains-rocks-stones, fortresses) may be given as the examples of synchronous study of the lexical meanings of words in modern native linguistics in “Rigveda” by T. Ya.

Elizarenkova [4], in a number of Germanic essays [5; 6; 7; et al] and also in the thesaurus description of a folklore words [8; 9; 10; 11].

The need for cross-genre comparison of concepts was earlier substantiated by us in the comparative research of f l o r a designations [12] as well as e a r t h and s k y [13] in the old Icelandic epic monument – “The Older Edda” [1*; 2*] and in the Old Germanic (Old English (3*) and

___________________

© Toporova T.V., 2015

1Cf. [1;2]

2“In our case by the text grammar we mean the description of the paradigm of the cases of the nouns under consideration met in the texts: the paradigm stricture, peculiarities of its expressing grammar categories, the usage of individual forms; predicates, attributes and definitions with which the given noun is combined, derivative bases that are formed from it and the composition of the compound words in which it is encountered. In such a way, small dictionaries are compiled for using the given noun in the hymns. These results of the linguistic analysis are always in parallel correlation with the types of mythological contexts and with the stylistic peculiarities of the text ” [4, p. 16-17].

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Old-High-German (4*)) metric plots of the IX–XII–th centuries. We believe that “the crossgenre comparison may be quite informative in compliance with a few essential conditions:

the investigated written records must be synchronous;

they must reflect the identical model of the world;

they reveal similiarities in the formal aspect;

their original character is unquestionable3.

All these requirements are taken into consideration in the original texts of Old-German and undoubtedly deserve a special study on the background of numerous translations.

Different number of monuments – on the one hand, the epos and, on the other hand, the works relating to small forms, in our opinion, do not preclude from the comparison, if one takes into consideration the structural peculiarities of the plots – their clear composition, formularity, an easily foreseeable inventory of “nuclear” lexemes, subordination of all the linguistic levels to the pragmatic intentions of its creator. In other words, the plots brevity, as well as their small amount, in any case should not be regarded as significant shortcomings, as they are extremely embossed (within a few lines the subject is formed) and standard and therefore the increase of their amount would perhaps add the information in a particular semantic field, but would not fundamentally change the situation” [12, p. 426-427].

Based on the above arguments we will try to extend this method on the lexemes from the other semantic fields, in particular, on the nominations of w a t e r . Before analyzing the linguistic facts some peculiarities of the studied material should be pointed out. The attention should be paid to the fact that in old English plots there are the two strata - the main one (poetic text) and the secondary one (metalinguistic, technical, describing rituals in prose); the following are the examples but they are only commented on the facts represented in the poetic – the plots themselves - part, as the rites possess the specific nature that needs as additional analysis.

After preliminary remarks we will turn to studying the particular material, described by the simplified scheme: in the dictionary article there are pointed out the c a s e s in the framework of paradigm, and also p r e d i c a t e s with their characteristic syntactical functions and a t t r i b u t e s (if presented), in some cases – synonyms and antonyms (if available); the comprehensive analysis is supplemented with the commentaries which are recorded in the structure of common elements of the lexemes studied.

For nomination of water

§1.

a) in the “Elder Edda” the following is used: Old Icelandic á ’river’:

Singular the Nominative Case: á sérhonausaz (Vsp. 27) “the river, she sees, is pouring out”; Á fellr austan um eitrdala (Vsp. 36) “The river falls from the East to the valley of poison”; hvé sú á heitir (Vm. 15) “What is the name of the river”* Ifing heitir á (Vm. 16) “The river is named Iving”* Á hugða ec hér inn renna at endilöngo húsi (Am. 26) “I think the river is flowing along the chamber”; singular the Accusative Case: Atli … fór yfir ána (HHv. 5 prose 5) “Utley went across the river”; oc fór brandinn … í ána (Hild. prose) “and the blade got … into the river”; singular, the Dative Case: verðrat íss á á (Vm. 16) “there will be no ice on the river”;

Predicated as subjects:

to be named: hvé sú á heitir (Vm. 15) “What is the river`s name”*; Ifing heitir á (Vm.

16) “the river is named Iving”*;

3 Here the case is not on the translated texts.

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Scientific Newsletter of Voronezh State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

to fall: Á fellr austan um eitrdala (Vsp. 36) “The river falls from the East o the valley of poison”;

to flow, to run: á sér hon ausaz (Vsp. 27) “The river, she sees, is flowing”; »; Á hugða ec hér inn renna at endilöngo húsi (Am. 26) “The river, I think, is hurling along the chamber”;

predicates as the l o c u s :

not to be: verðrat íss á á (Vm. 16) “there will be no ice on the river”; predicates as d i r e c t i o n s :

to make the movements (across the river, into the river): Atli … fór yfir ána (HHv. 5 prose 5) “Atli went across the river”; oc fór brandinn … í ána (HHv. 5 prose 5) “and the blade got … into the river”;

b) the following lexemes4 are used in the Old German plots: Old-High German aha, Old English ea ‘river’:

singular, the Nominative Case: sō uerstant du bluod sōse Iordānis aha uerstunt. Dō der heiligo iohannes den heilanden crist in iro toufta (BBa.) “Just stop, you, the blood, as the river

Jordan stopped when St. John baptized Christ the Savour in it”;

singular, the Accusative Case5: Ic ana wat ea rinnende / þær þa nygon nædran nean behealdað (2, 59-60) “I know one flowing river/ there nearby nine snakes safeguard them [the poisons]”;

predicates as t h e s u b j e c t :

to stop: Iordānis aha uerstunt “the river Jordan stops”; to flow: Ic ana wat ea rinnende

(2, 59) “I know that one river flows”; predicates as the l o c u s :

to baptize: Iordānis aha uerstunt. Dō der heiligo iohannes den heilanden crist in iro toufta (BBa.) “The river Jordan stops when St. John baptized Christ the Savour in it”;

commentary: the river (old Icelandic á Old English ea `river`), if it is considered on the basis of grammatical indicators (number and cases), is perceived as a s i n g l e object, that is evidenced by the image of the first river (Old Icelandic Iving (Ewing)) in the cosmogonic myth or an exemplary river reproducing the precedent of the first creation – Jordan; in the paradigm the Nominative Case dominates (5 from 8 words usage in the “Elder Edda”, 2 from 3 in the plots) in the function of t h e s u b j e c t (predicated characterize the main action of the denotat – to flow), is associated with poison (VSP. 36 and 2, 59-60) characterized by ambivalence, may be regarded both positively and negatively (cf: “the terrible” river with knives and swords – slid and chtonic monsters in the river (2,59-60)), is associated with the lower zone – he kingdom of the dead (Velhalla), cf. Grm. 21) and its inhabitants – snakes (2, 59-60); the denotat appears as a fullflooded6 stream, fast, raid7 one resembling a waterfall.

§ 2

a) In the “Elder Edda” the following is used:

Old Icelandic flóð 'river':

Singular, the Dative Case unir Þióðvitnis // fiscr flóði í (Grm. 21) “Tyodvitnir`s fish // is playing in the river”; Hvat er þat fisca, er renn flóði í (Rm. 1) “What fish rushes in the river?”;

Predicates as the l o c u s :

to play: unir Þióðvitnis // fiscr flóði í (Grm. 21) “Tyodvitnir`s fish // is playing in the riv-

er”;

to rush: Hvat er þat fisca, er renn flóði í (Rm. 1) “What fish rushes in the river?”;

4Linguistic data are given in the alphabetic order and cited by [14, с. 40-43].

5In the given construction accbsativus cum infinitive the Accusaticve Case is isofunctional to the Nominative Case:

I know the flowing river = The river flows.

6Compare Old Icelandic association river – great, and also the composite ár-straumr ‘river flow’.

7 Compare: predicates as t h e s u b j e c t – to fall, to rush.

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Series «Modern Linguistic and Methodical-and-Didactic Researches» Issue № 3 (10), 2015

b) In old German plots there is used: Old-High German fluoz ‘river’:

Singular, the Nominative Case: Duo verstuont der Iordānis fluoz und der sīn runst (MB) “Then the river Jordan stopped its flowing”;

Predicates as the s u b j e c t :

to stop: Duo verstuont der Iordānis fluoz und der sīn runst (MB) “Then the river Jordan stopped its flowing”;

to flow: Duo verstuont der Iordānis fluoz und der sīn runst (MB) “Then the river Jordan stopped its flowing”;

commentary: river (Old Icelandic flóð ' river', Old-High-German fluoz ' river') is described as a stormy stream, a rapid flow, judging by predicates (rush in the stream, to play in the stream); the main action of the denotatum is accentuated – to flow (cf: antonym – to stop); predicates dominate as the subjects in the plot (MB) and as the locus in the “Elder Edda”.

§ 3

a) In the “Elder Edda” there is used:

Old Icelandic sær 'sea':

Singular, the Nominative Case: vara sandr né sær (Vsp. 3) “There was neither sand nor sea”; Ór Ymis … var … um scöpuð, // … enn ór sveita siór (Vm. 21; Grm. 40) “From Imir … there was created // … the sea of blood”*; Sær heitir með mönnom (Alv. 24) “The sea is called by the people”; ef hann sær um léc (HHv. 38) “If the sea killed him”*; singular, the Genitive Case: til sævar kømr, // örn (Háv. 62) “An eagle // flies to the sea”; þær á sævar strönd settuz at hvílaz (Vkv. 1) “They set down to rest on the bank of the lake”*; oc setið hann síðan í sævar stöð (Vkv. 17) l. “Then let him sit on the bank of the lake”*; Drifo ungir tveir á dýr siá // … í sævar stöð (Vkv. 20) “Two young men took it into their heads to look at the treasures // … near the bank of the lake”*; Guðrún gecc þá til sævar (Am. 105 prose. 1-2) “Gudrun then went to the sea”; Singular the Dative Case: svæfic allan sæ (Háv. 154) “in good weather they tow in the sea ”*; Singular, the Accusative Case: svæfic allan sæ (Háv. 154) “put asleep all the sea”; Þaðan koma meyiar … // … ór þeim sæ (Vsp. 20) “From there maids appeared … //… from the lake”*; scyldo um sæ sigla (Am. 3) “Have to flow along the sea”*; Guðrún … gecc út á sæinn (Am. 105 проз. 1-2) “Gudrun … went to the sea”; veðri á sió róa (Háv. 82) “in good weather they row in the sea”*; Singular, the Dative Case: þat var um aukit … // svalköldom sæ (Gðr. II 21; is similar to Hdl. 38) “it (the drink) was strengthen by … // the cool-and-cold sea”* Plural the Nominative Case: Lítilla sanda, lítilla sæva (Háv. 53) “Small sands, small seas”; Plural the Accusative Case: sæva of svefia (Rþ. 44) “to put seas to sleep”.

Attributes:

all (the whole) svæfic allan sæ (Háv. 154) “I will put all the sea to sleep”*; small: Lítilla sanda, lítilla sæva (Háv. 53) “small sands, small seas”;

cool-and-cold: þat var um aukit … // svalköldom sæ (Gðr. II 21; similar to Hdl. 38) “It (the drink) was strengthened by … // cool-and-cold sea”*.

predicates as the s u b j e c t :

to be (not to be): Lítilla sanda, lítilla sæva (Háv. 53) “Small sands, small seas”; vara sandr né sær (Vsp. 3) “there was neither sand, nor sea”;

to destroy (to kill): ef hann sær um léc (HHv. 38) “If the sea destroyed him”*; to call: Sær heitir með mönnom (Alv. 24) “The sea is called by people”;

to create: Ór Ymis … var … um scöpuð, // … enn ór sveita siór (Vm. 21; Grm. 40) “From Imir … there was created //… the sea of blood”*;

predicates as t h e o b j e c t :

to put to sleep: : svæfic allan sæ (Háv. 154) “I will put the whole sea to sleep”*; sæva of svefia (Rþ. 44) “to put the seas to sleep”;

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