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3 Suggest the Russian equivalents:

Can be traced back; enormous influence; to reach a high point; Early Christian times; a central domed space; in the arms of the cross; the reign of Justinian; to some extent; the church of the Holy Wisdom; by the 9th century; to follow the plan of a Greek cross; to cover externally and internally; flat and incise; to become universal.

4 Give the English equivalents:

Нашей эры; под влиянием Востока; достигнуть высшей точки в развитии; православные общины; базиликальный и центрические типы; церковь святой Софии; покрывать штукатуркой мозаикой; неописуемая красота; ярко освещенное пространство; главный материал; может быть отнесен к периоду; появляться в России; широко распространяться.

5Read the text again and answer the questions that follow (1–8):

1.When was Constantinople established?

2.Why did the Byzantine style influence greatly both the East and the West?

3.When did this style develop?

4.When did this style come to Russia?

5.How far did this style spread?

6.What was the dominant Byzantine art form?

7.What are the two chief types of churches of Byzantine period?

8.What can toy say about Byzantine decoration?

6Say whether these sentences are true or false:

1.The style had enormous influence on the West.

2.It was Roman art transformed under influence of the East.

3.The dominant Byzantine art was architecture.

4.In Byzantine architecture there was only one type of church.

5.Stone was the main material used for the construction of Byzantine churches.

6.Hagia Sophia is a palace.

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7.Byzantine architecture of the period of Hagia Sophia was markedly concerned with mathematics.

7Give a literary translation of §1, 2, 8.

8You misheard the information. Make it more exact, putting questions:

Example: A: This art can be traced back to the period just before the reign of Justinian.

B:To what period can this art be traced back?

1.This style influenced both the East and the West.

2.The Byzantine style still survives among Greek and Orthodox communities.

3.The church of Holy Wisdom is the supreme example of this style.

4.The Byzantine style influenced the arts of Russia.

5.The basilica and centralized church were the main types of Byzantine architecture.

9Match the beginnings of the sentences to their ends using the information from the text:

10What is your impression of the information given in the text? Express your ideas in 3–4 sentences.

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11In a paragraph of 70–100 words, and using your own words, as far as possible, summarize what the text tells us about and early Christian and Byzantine architecture.

12Find and present additional information on any church mentioned in the text.

WORD LIST

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“Two points of view on architecture:

Unit 3

ORDERS of ARCHITECTURE

Read the text:

(§1) The first step in architecture was simply the replacement of wooden pillars with stone ones, and the translation of the carpentry and brick structural forms into stone equivalents. This provided an opportunity for the expression of proportion and pattern. This expression eventually took the form of the invention or evolution of the stone “orders” of architecture. These orders, or arrangements of specific types of columns supporting an upper section called an entablature, defined the pattern of the columnar facades and upperworks that formed the basic decorative shell of buildings.

(§2) The Greeks invented the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, the Tuscan and the Composite (Fig. 3.1).

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(§3) The oldest order, the Doric, is subdivided into Greek Doric and Roman Doric. The first is the simplest and has baseless columns as those of the Parthenon. Roman Doric has a base and was less massive.

(§4) Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order long remained the favourite order of the Greek mainland and western colonies, and it changed little throughout its history. The Ionic order evolved later, in eastern Greece. About 600 BC, in Asia Minor, the first intimation of the style appeared in stone columns with capitals elaborately carved in floral hoops. The order was always fussier, less stereotyped than Doric. The Ionic temples of the 6th century exceed in size and decoration even the most ambitious of their Classical successors. Such were the temples of Artemis at Ephesus in Asia Minor and the successive temples of Hera on the island of Samos.

(§5) The Corinthian order originated in the 5th century BC in Athens. It had Ionic capital elaborated with acanthus leaves. In its general proportions it is very like the Ionic. For the first time the Corinthian order was used for temple exteriors. Due to its advantage of facing equally in four directions it was more adaptable than Ionic for corners. There are not many Greek examples of the Corinthian order. The Romans widely used it for its showiness. The earliest known instance ofthe Corinthian order used on the exterior is the monument of Lysicrates in Athens, 335/334 BC.

(§6) A simplified version of the Roman Doric is the Tuscan order which has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid. It has a less decorated frieze and no mutules in the cornice.

(§7) The Composite order is also a late Roman invention, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian

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order. Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high.

Assignments:

1Present phonetic reading of §4.

2Find equivalents in the text and give your own variants (paraphrase) to the following:

Initial, substitution, foundation, arise, adjustable, finding, suppose.

3Explain the expressions in bold from the text and make up sentences of your own. Use English-English dictionaries to help you.

4Read the text again and answer the questions that follow (1–6):

1.What determined the design of the order?

2.What is the order in Classical architecture?

3.Which orders were invented by the Greeks?

4.What is the difference between Greek Doric and Roman Doric?

5.What can be said about the evolution of the Ionic order?

6.Why did the Romans often use the Corinthian order?

5Say whether these sentences are true or false:

1.The first step in architecture was simply the replacement of wooden pillars with stone ones.

2.Greek Doric has a base.

3.Doric changed a lot throughout its history.

4.The Ionic order evolved in eastern Greece.

5.The Corinthian order originated in the 5th century BC.

6.For the first time the Corinthian order was used for the temple interiors.

6 Give a literary translation of §5, 6, 7.

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7What is your impression of the information given in the text? Express your ideas in 3–4 sentences.

8In a paragraph of 70–100 words, and using your own words, as far as possible, summarize what the text tells us about orders of architecture.

9Find and present additional information on any type of orders you like.

WORD LIST

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“Most architectural forms can be classified as additive, subtractive, shaped, or abstract.

Additive forms appear to have been assembled from individual pieces. Subtractive forms appear to have been carved or cut from a previously “whole” form. Shaped or molded forms appear to have been formed from a plastic material through directly applied force.

Abstract forms are of uncertain origin”. Matthew Frederick (architect)

Unit 4

Figure 4.1. Mortar Mixing

MORTARS

Read the text:

(§1) Mortar is the matrix used in the beds and the side joints of brickwork and for plastering walls and floors (Fig. 4.1). Its functions are as follows:

1.To distribute the pressure throughout the brickwork;

2.To adhere and bind together the bricks;

3.To act as a non-conductor and prevent the transmission of heat, sound, and moisture from one side of wall to the other.

(§2) Mortar consists of an inert aggregate bound by a cementing material. The cementing material is most important in determining characteristics of the mortar. The usual cementing materials used for constructional work are hydraulic limes or Portland cement.

(§3) Clean, sharp pit sand is the best aggregate. Old bricks, burnt ballast or stones ground in a mortar mill may be used as substitutes for sand.

(§4) Mortars may be classified as follows:

a)cement mortars;

b)cement-lime mortars;

c)lime mortars.

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(§5) Lime Mortar. This is a mixture of quick lime and sand in the proportion of 1 part lime to 2 or 3 parts sand in addition to water. It is the principal material used for bedding and jointing bricks, stones etc.

(§6) Non-hydraulic Lime Mortars must be well slaked before use. This type can be stored in a heap for several days after mixing. These mortars are not suitable for work below ground level, especially if the ground is water-logged.

(§7) Hydraulic Lime Mortars should be used within an hour after being mixed. Any mortar which has stiffened and cannot be knocked up by means of a trowel to a sufficiently plastic condition should never be used.

(§8) Cement Mortars. It is stronger than lime mortar and it is used in the construction of piers and load-bearing walls; it is also employed for work below ground level and for external walls. Cement Mortar is extensively used during winter, owing to its relatively quick-setting property.

(§9) Lime-Cement or Compo Mortars. Compo is a mixture of lime, cement and sand. It is usual to mix the lime mortar and then to gauge this mixture with the necessary proportion of Portland cement immediately before the mortar is required for use.

(§10) Cement Mortar produces the strongest brickwork; nonhydraulic lime mortar is approximately half the strength of that in cement mortar; hydraulic mortars are intermediate between that of cement and non-hydraulic lime mortars. The strength of compo mortars depend upon the cement content and may be very little less than that of cement mortar.

Assignments:

1Present phonetic reading of §§5–8.

2Explain the expressions in bold from the text and make up sentences of your own. Use English-English dictionaries to help you.

3Give the English equivalents:

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Строительный раствор; состоять из; обычные материалы; гасить; болотистая местность; с помощью кельмы; свойство; зависеть от содержания цемента; разнообразные цели; заменитель песка; строительство плотин; Портленд цемент; предотвращать трансмиссию.

4Read the text again and answer the questions that follow (1–9):

1.What is the definition of mortar?

2.What are the functions of mortar?

3.What does mortar consist of?

4.What material can be used instead of sand?

5.How can mortars be classified?

6.What are the types of lime mortar?

7.What are the peculiarities of cement mortar? Compo mortar?

8.What mortar is the strongest one? The weakest one?

5Say whether these sentences are true or false:

1.Old bricks can be used instead of sand.

2.One of the functions of mortar is to prevent porosity of mortars.

3.Non-hydraulic mortar is the weakest one.

4.Compo mortar is the mixture of lime, brick and water.

5.The usual cementing materials used for constructional work are hydraulic limes or Portland cement.

6.The strength of compo mortars doesn’t depend upon the cement content.

6 Give a literary translation of §7–10.

7 Fill in the table using the information from the text:

MORTAR DESCRIPTION APPLICATION

Lime Mortar

Non-hydraulic lime mortar

Hydraulic lime mortar

Cement mortar

Lime-cement mortar

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