4159

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Вариант 2

THE AMERICAN LEGAL PROFESSION

The American legal profession, like American law, has it roots in England, but with significant differences. In England, the legal profession is divided between office lawyers, known as solicitors, and courtroom lawyers, known as barristers.

In the United States, there is no division of the profession, and a lawyer frequently does both office work and courtroom work. There is, however, a great deal of variety in the types of f work done by lawyers.

Attorney

Depending upon the circumstances and the needs of the client, the lawyer may be a counselor, a negotiator, and/or a litigator. In each of these roles, the lawyer will need to engage in factual investigation.

With respect to each of these roles, the lawyer will do the following:

Counselor: Attorney will help advise the client how to order the client's affairs. Negotiator: Lawyer will work with opposing counsel to try to get a favorable

resolution for the client. The art of negotiation involves many techniques individual to particular attorneys and the circumstances. The client always retains the right to accept or reject a settlement negotiated or offered by the opposing party.

Litigator: In litigating, the attorney will help pick a jury and participate in pretrial motions.

Fact Investigator: All of the lawyer's roles require the investigation of relevant facts, including locating and interviewing witnesses.

A lawyer is to be a zealous advocate of the client, in this respect the lawyer must advocate on the client's behalf and avoid conflicts of interest. The lawyer is also an officer of the court and is required to deal fairly and honestly with the court and with its other officers, including the lawyer's opponents.

Judge

The judge is the final arbiter of the law. The judge is charged with the duty to state, as a positive matter, what the law is. In addition, the judge is to maintain order in the courtroom.

Judges in federal courts are appointed by the President with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Many state court judges are elected by popular vote.

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Jury

The jury, a group of local citizens, is the fact-finder in most trials. The jury will receive instructions from the judge as to the law, and its members will assess the facts as they perceive them in light of the law, as instructed, to return a verdict.

Notes

attorney – поверенный counselor – адвокат(США) negotiator – посредник

litigator – сторона в судебном процессе

to engage in factual investigation – заниматься фактическим расследованием

to order the client's affairs – приводить в порядок дела клиента to get a favorable resolution – добиться благоприятного решения the art of negotiation – искусство ведения переговоров

to retain the right – сохранять право to accept – принимать

to reject – отклонять motion – ходатайство

to locate – устанавливать местонахождение

to be charged with the duty – иметь обязательства to maintain order – поддерживать порядок

to assess the facts – оценивать факты to perceive – понимать, осознавать in the light of the law – в свете закона to return a verdict – вынести вердикт

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст, используя примечания после текста и методические рекомендации на стр.4–10. Перепишите, переведите и подготовьте контрольное чтение абзацев 1, 2, 3, 4.

II. Из всего текста выпишите все ing-формы и слова с окончанием -s, определите, чем они являются, и дайте перевод.

III. Заполните пропуски в предложениях. Предварительно внимательно прочитайте определения следующих терминов.

legal, lawful, legitimate

Any action which is allowed by law is legal: It's legal for people over 18 to buy alcohol.

V. Образуйте существительные от данных ниже глаголов и переведите их на русский язык.

To negotiate, to litigate, to engage, to oppose, to assess, to advise

VI. Ответьте на вопросы.

1.What are the main types of legal profession in Great Britain?

2.What duties to the client and to the court do solicitors have?

3.What kind of paper work do barristers do?

4.What is the usual way for solicitors and barristers to build up a practice?

VII. Прочитайте текст и изложите его содержание кратко по-русски.

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TYPES OF LEGAL PROFESSIONS IN RUSSIA

Lawyers in private practice in Russia work mostly within colleges of advocates – self-managed cooperative-type organizations. There are about nineteen thousand advocates in more than one hundred colleges. The highest body of advocates' selfmanagement is the general meeting of a college. The presidium headed by the chairperson is the executive board of each college. The presidium is elected by the general meeting for a term of three years.

Colleges of advocates are formed in accordance with territorial subdivisions – in the cities, regions (oblasts), republics or autonomous entities. In its territory any college is represented by law firms or legal aid offices, which render all regular legal assistance to citizens: advocates counsel people, draft legal documents, represent plaintiffs or defendants in civil litigation, and provide defense in criminal proceedings.

There are now more and more American-type law firms in Russia functioning separately from colleges of advocates and especially involved in representing private businesses.

Many lawyers are employed by the law offices of enterprises, ministries and agencies as in-house counsel (jurisconsult). These lawyers have all powers of an attorney, but they represent their single and permanent "client" – their respective organization. There are about twenty thousand of them in Russia, and in view of the economic reform this body is growing.

Of course, many in the legal profession teach or do academic research work. In Russia there are forty institutions of higher education in law (either a law school attached to a university or a separate entity called a "juridical institute"). New private law schools are popping up. There are also separate research centers in law, the most prominent of which is the Institute of State and Law under the Academy of Sciences of Russia.

college of advocates – коллегия адвокатов

self-managed cooperative type organization – независимая общественная

организация

executive board – исполнительный комитет

legal aid offices – юридическая консультация

to render – предоставлять

in-house counsel – юрисконсульт

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plaintiff – истец

defendant – ответчик

juridical – юридический

Задание для дополнительного чтения

Coming College Crisis

Public opinion about the importance of a college education is at an all-time high for Americans. And if the historical "boom and bust" cycle of higher education finance holds true, state governments are likely to face policy choices that range from bad to worse. Options like raising taxes, cutting services or taking money away from other public sendees are the alternative facing elected officials. These are the conclusions from a recent study by [the late] Harold Hovey of State Policy Research, Inc.

Most of us would prefer to believe that the current economic cycle will continue, sparing us of these choices. This leap of faith, however, would require that long-term trends in public finance and in higher education finance are an anomaly. The risk is great in believing that the good times are here to stay, and that the last 30 years of public finance are the anomaly. Reducing educational opportunity for Americans at a time when personal aspirations are growing and economic imperatives for education and training are greater will not serve our democracy or economy well.

State Fiscal Conundrum

To maintain current levels of opportunity and service in higher education, state and local governments will need to increase spending by slightly more than the percentage increase in the total personal income of all Americans. Unfortunately:

•State revenues will not increase as fast as personal income.

•Projected state revenues will not be sufficient to maintain current service levels.

Under current tax policies, state and local revenues will not grow as quickly as total personal income. This problem is largely the result of states' reliance on sales taxes and fees. "Every growth of 10 percent in personal income," Hovey said, "is associated with growth of about 9.5 percent in state and local tax revenues."

Hovey reported, "With revenues growing more slowly than personal income and outlays growing faster, state and local governments have a structural deficit in funding current services. This mismatch between what would be needed to continue current programs

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and revenues from current taxes is about 0.5 percent a year. That is, to maintain current services, state and local governments nationwide would have to increase taxes by about 0.5 percent. Alternatively, they could maintain current tax systems and keep budgets balanced by holding spending growth to about 4.5 percent annually rather than the 5 percent needed to maintain current services."

By year eight in Hovey's fiscal projection, the structural deficit will average just less than 4 percent nationwide, but will vary depending upon the state. . . . Even without a major economic downturn, 39 states will experience gaps between the cost of maintaining current public services and the revenues they can expect under current tax policy. The robust national economy has masked this problem recently, but it will become more evident in the next few years.

A recession could mean a real crisis. Hovey said, "If extraordinarily good times were followed by normal times, it might be possible for states to make fiscal adjustments in less than a crisis environment. However, extraordinarily good times are usually followed by corrections in the private economy called recessions. When they occur, states often are caught in a situation where their budgets are hugely out of balance."

Boom or Bust

The historic trends in public funding for colleges can be described as "boom or bust." During economic recessions, higher education takes disproportionate cuts in public funding, usually accompanied by steep increases in tuition. During economic prosperity, higher education has benefited disproportionately—with state revenues growing more rapidly than in other areas of state government. However, over the long run, even during the good times of the late 1990s, higher education's overall share of revenue from state government has been shrinking.

Hovey said, "In other words, higher education isn't competing successfully with the attractions of other forms of state spending."

Hovey projected that state spending for higher education would have to increase faster than state spending in other areas to maintain current services. While total state funding will need to increase by about 5 percent annually to maintain current levels for all services, state funding will need to increase by about 6 percent for higher education to maintain current service levels there – largely due to enrollment increases. This means that even if state revenues were growing by the 5 percent needed to maintain services, states would need to increase the percentage of higher education funding annually just to maintain current services there.

(by Joni E. Finney and Thad R. Nodine)

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ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ КОММЕНТАРИЙ

ТАБЛИЦА ВРЕМЁН ДЕЙСТВИТЕЛЬНОГО ЗАЛОГА

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СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ (PASSIVE VOICE)

ТАБЛИЦА ВРЕМЁН СТРАДАТЕЛЬНОГО ЗАЛОГА Образуется с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем

времени и смыслового глагола в форме Participle II.

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Глагол в страдательном залоге обозначает действие, направленное на лицо (предмет), которое обозначается существительным (или другой частью речи), являющимся в предложении подлежащим. Исполнитель же действия либо не указывается совсем, либо обозначается другим существительным с предлогом by, стоящим после сказуемого.

Глагол в страдательном залоге переводится на русский язык:

1)глаголом быть с краткой формой причастия страдательного залога;

2)глаголом, оканчивающимся на -ся;

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3)неопределённо-личной формой глагола (то есть глаголом в 3 лице множественного числа при отсутствии подлежащего);

4)глаголом в действительном залоге (при наличии исполнителя действия).

Пример: The case was considered last week (by the city court).

1.Дело было рассмотрено на прошлой неделе.

2.Дело рассматривалось на прошлой неделе.

3.Дело рассмотрели на прошлой неделе.

4.Дело рассмотрел суд на прошлой неделе.

(Дело было рассмотрено судом на прошлой неделе.)

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ

Modal Verbs

Модальные глаголы выражают не действие, а отношение к нему – возможность совершить действие, способность его совершения.

Can –мочь, уметь,

быть в состоянии (сделать что-либо)

Одна форма для всех лиц. В прошедшем времени – could.

Отсутствующие формы восполняются выражением to be able to. Будущее: I (we) shall be able … – Я смогу (мы сможем) …