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WORKSHOP №2

«CULTURE ISSUES AND POLITICS UNDER GLOBALIZATION»

Chair: Anna V. Gatskan, Instructor, International Economic Relations Department, Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law

Secretary: Elvira Gayfullina, 5th year student, International Economic Relations Department, Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law

Elvira Gayfullina, Darya Fedorova, Evgeniya Chingaeva, Ekaterina Ropalets,

5th year students, International Economic Relations Department, Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law, Khabarovsk

GENDER RELATIONSHIPS BEFORE MARRIAGE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

The attention to relationship performance gives the project a broad appeal to those disciplines concerned with interactions, while the inclusion of different aspects of relationships and practical research on cross cultural gender relationships will shed more light on how such relationships are maintained in different countries, which is critical in the modern global world with all the cultures interacting intensely on the personal and professional levels.

The aim of the research is to explain how relationships are performed in different countries and to show some changes that are happening in that field currently, and also to raise awareness of people about different peculiarities of relationships in different countries. In order to do this research, we applied such qualitative methods as: reading and analysis of related scholarly literature as well as empiric observation. We all have some experience in maintaining relationships with representatives from other countries. We were also able to observe interpersonal and intercultural relationships first hand, when we studied in the USA, South Korea and China. The quantitative methods we applied in the reseach are surveys and ststistic data, the results of which are represented below in the boxes.

The practical value of this research is in providing multiple examples from the real world to those interested in learning more about cross cultural gender relationships as well as serving as model simulations to those eager to improve their own gender relationships and thus to illuminate their own lives even before engaging in such.

In Chapter 1 we will present general information on gender relationships in different countries, along with interesting facts and examples taken from different researches in the field. Chapter 2 holds a practical survey we conducted in 3 countries: Russia, United States of America and South Korea. These 3 countries have been chosen because they represent 3 different lifestyles and religions, and because we have more legitimacy to study them as we visited and stayed in those countries for some period of time and we developed friendly relationships with peoople during these visits.

We believe that the results of the research will be interesting and useful not only for students, but for teachers as well, for all those involved in intercultural relationships and/or engaged in the studies of this interdisciplinary issue.

Chapter 1 Pre-marital relationships across cultures 1.2 Pre-marital relationships in Russia

Russia has the unique and controversial culture. For years, gender relationships as part of Russian culture, was subjected to the influence of both East and West.

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During the centuries, from the time of modern history up to the end of the Soviet Union, gender relationships in Russia could be referred to as a model of the so called traditional gender relationships of the East. That is: the dominant position of men in the relationships, huge power of parents’ opinion, early marriages, and the three main stages in the development of gender relationships, which often occurred rapidly, one after another: marriage, first sexual experience, pregnancy.

Things began to change in 1990-s, when Russia entered the process of globalization. Today, our country took over trends of relationships, which had been spread over the globe earlier. They are: the increase in the average age of those starting to develop gender relationships, tendency of equal rights men and women enjoy in gender relationships, more independence of the youngsters to choose partners, the increase in the number of international marriages. However, we are still remaining the culture which keeps its strong family traditions. 70% of young people in Russia, when posed the question «What is the most important in your life?» replied «Family». It is symbolic that in Russian the word «gender» itself can be translated literary as «half» («pol», in Russian), which means that a Russian considers his/her spouse as his/her half , and thus incomplete when single.

1.3 Pre-marital relationships in USA

There are lots of different types of relationships between male and female in USA: from «friends-with-benefits» to full-on marriage! All relationships are different, but they all usually have one thing in common - when you are in a relationship with someone, it usually means that you both like each other more than anyone else, and of course, the most important part in all successful relationships is respect to each other. Most relationships are monogamous - which means that for as long as you stay together, you will only be physical with each other - you will not get off with anyone else or have sex with anyone else. The advantage of this is that you're less likely to catch any sexually transmitted infections if you stay with just one partner. As we found out through our survey, for American people this aspect is very important. In the USA, it is customary among men and women to kiss and to touch each other for pleasure, thus, demonstrating their feelings on public.

Just because you are going out with someone, you don't have to have sexual relationships. According to the opinions of those Americans we surveyed, being in a relationship is really good and it is an important part of their lives. It can give you a real high to know that someone wants you and you want him/her. Many people feel more confident about themselves when they are in a relationship with someone.

1.4 Pre-marital relationships in South Korea

Korean culture in general may be described as a part of East Asian culture, centered on Chinese Confucian tradition and characterized by extraordinary homogeneity. Due to the family-centered social ethics, Koreans usually place much value on family and family-related matters in their lives. This kind of attitude and social behavior may be called feminine culture. A married person, who has children and a good job, is placed higher in the Confucian hierarchy. That is why Koreans always ask questions about age, marriage and money.

Today, significant changes in the realm of relationships are evident in Korea. Above all, Koreans are seeing a clear trend toward late marriage: the accepted age for marriage is continuously increasing, for example, in 2007 the average age for first marriages was 29.6 years for men and 26.8 years for women. The marriage rate itself is dropping, too. Approximately 20 years ago there were 10.6 marriages per 1000 people, but by 2007 this figure had decreased dramatically to 6.7. This shows a clear tendency for people in their late twenties and early thirties to delay marriage and to prolong pre-marital relationships.

Both traditional and modern elements of cultural customs play a role in the choice of a partner. The influence of parents and relatives is traditionally very strong. But it is markedly decreasing nowadays. However, it has been revealed that few marriages are made as

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consequence of such purely personal feelings as «love at first sight». Outside love itself, more practical considerations are usually taken into account, such as socioeconomic status, property, level of education and religion of the prospective spouse as well as parents-in-law from each side. This may prompt the idea that the ideals of truly romantic love have subtly merged with the demands of compatibility.

Views on gender relationships are becoming more flexible and varied in Korea. This can be seen in the relatively tolerant attitude toward practices that were considered taboo in the past, such as international marriage, marriage of people from different social standings, marriage of an older woman to a younger man, and marriage of the partners, one of whom has been married before. Furthermore, there has been a notable weakening of stereotypes and biases against divorce, remarriage, and living together before marriage.

Koreans yearn for love, and they are very romantic. Their changing views on public displays of affection prove it. Koreans seem to be really concerned with being in a relationship. They love being «we» or «us». More importantly, they love letting everyone else know they are «us».

Traditionally, in Korea's unique cultural and historical context, the meaning of love relationships and marriages is qualitatively different from that of the Western spouse-centered family. But in modern Korea, it is difficult to find a compromise between the tradition and the modernity, when tradition regards marriage as the meeting of two families, and modernity emphasizes the union of two people in love.

Based on what has been said we can conclude that relationships and its performance can differ from one country to another. Those countries mentioned above have different history that undoubtedly influenced the people and thus their attitudes towards each other. People have different mentalities and values, as well as different upbringing. Relationships consist of different aspects and each of them has certain i mpact on relationships, their process and success. And studying relationships is impossible without taking those aspects into account. That is why we decided to conduct a research on few aspects that we believe determine relationships performance and make relationships in one country different from those in another country.

Chapter 2. Comparative analysis of gender relationships in the USA, South Korea and Russia

With reference to the main aspects in pre-marital relationships described in Chapter 1, we have chosen the following criteria for our comparative analysis of gender relationships in the 3 countries:

average age when people start their relationships;

-duration of relationships (the longest relationship person has had and how long people should date to make a decision to get married);

-number of partners before marriage (all people that person was in relationship with or those he/she considered his/her boyfriend/girlfriend at certain period of his/her life)

-parents’ influence on relationships,

-PDA (public display of affection),

-intercultural relationships (relationships with representative of another nationality). We think that studying this aspect is very important in our globalizing world.

Methodology: 1) Survey (target group is unmarried people, students from 18 to 30 years old) held by Internet and paper questionnaires, 2) observation, 3) personal experience, 4) experts’ opinion.

We also divided males and females opinions because we believe that opinions of different genders can be very different.

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Chart 1 - Comparative factors of gender relationships before marriage in studied countries

(Respondents’ answers in the survey)

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Chart 2 - Criteria that young people use when choosing a partner for relationships

2.1 Russia

Age when relationships start

Our research shows that the average age for youngsters to start relationships in Russia is 16.5 years old. It is interesting that young men start their first gender relationships in the younger age than the young women do (women at 16.5; men at 16 on average).

Previous researches, made on gender relationships in Russia, pointed out that before 1990- s relationships between youngsters tended to follow the eastern model of gender relationships: 90% of youngsters were already married at 21. This model of relationships remained stable for years; however it began to change due to the process of westernization (which started in Russia 10 years later than in Europe). During our survey we questioned youngsters аt the age of 21 on average, but no one among them was married. Modern researches indicated that today women on average get married at 23.5 years old; men - at 26. So there is a tendency that the average age of starting a relationship is increasing.

Number of partners

We have discovered that all people questioned have 4 partners on average. What is more interesting is that young men have answered that they had from 1 to 10 partners, on the other hand, girls claimed to have on average 3.2 partners. We think that it can be explained by the fact that people from opposite genders have different attitude towards relationships. Women on the psychological level are guided by more serious considerations when it comes to relationships, whereas men change partners more frequently.

Duration of relationships

All people we questioned, had been having long lasting relationships (about a year), the longest average relationship for girls is the period of 15 month, for guys – 12 month. Except for the reason stated above this tendency can be explained by the ratio of women and men in the population of Russia. Nowadays for each three women there is only one man. In our country the ones who choose are men, rather then women. So girls tend to maintain and keep relationship, as they are minority.

How long should people date before getting married

The majority of respondents agreed that about a year of relationships is enough to get married with a partner. We have discovered that boys have controversial answers about marriage: among them there are people who are ready to get married tomorrow if they really love a partner (10%), still there are some guys who don’t see any sense in formalization of the relationships (18%). Girls, on the other hand, take more moderate position: 54% hold the opinion of dating a year before marriage

More and more young people prefer not to formalize their relationships. In modern Russian society the number of common-law marriages has increased dramatically over the last 20 years. For Russians, it is typical for partners to live together for a long time before

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marriage. We have found several reasons for that: 1) Most marriages lately were concluded due to the pregnancy of young wives. Nowadays young people have an excess to the wide range of means of contraception; 2) the role of woman has changed in Russian society: today woman in Russia doesn’t depend on her official marital status anymore. Woman is more independent: she has an excess to higher education and profitable jobs; 3) fear of loneliness began to disappear. Studies showed that most youngsters already have an experience of 1 or 2 relationships before 20; 4) Love. It is surprising but most young people in Russia think that common-law marriage can save love longer, instead of an official one. They claim that after 3-4 years of an official marriage feelings begin to vanish; 5) People feel more comfortable when they don’t have legal formal status of relationships, they are more free because it is easier to end the relationships if something goes wrong; 6) Nowadays most youngsters, following the model of Western society, consider that before marriage they should complete high education, find a stable job and at least be able to rent an apartment.

Relationships in public

Most surveyed young people do not object to the public display of emotions. Both young men and young women accept kissing and hugging on public (73%, 82% correspondingly), but still some level of formality exists in Russian culture – youngsters pointed out that there are some limits to public emotion display they need to relate to. It shows, first of all, that our society is a mixture of cultures: western and eastern. Researches indicated that young men feel freer in public display of emotions: 27% of them indicated that they do not see any difficulties to display emotions in public.

Parents’ influence on relationships

To clarify the power of parent’s attitude in gender relationships in Russia, we have asked respondents about the weight of parent’s opinion towards the choice of the partner. Most youngsters answered that they listen to their parents, but their opinion is not the model for them. What we found interesting is that guys more listen to their parents than girls do. Also there are girls who keep their private life in secret (10%), while all guys discus the problem of choosing the partner with their parents.

Criteria that youngsters use when choosing a partner

Russian youngsters choose partners following three main criteria: partners’ human values (character, sense of humor etc.), partners’ appearance and the attitude of the partner toward him/her. However opposite genders have stated different priorities among these criteria. First of all human values are more important for girls than for boys. On the other hand young men pay more attention on the appearance of the partner. Researches also found out that young women in Russia are more pragmatic. More than 30% of them have chosen a position that a partner takes in the society (the level of partners’ earnings, a presence of the car etc.) as the important criterion.

Relationships with the person from other nationality

We have questioned youngsters about the possibility of having relationships with the member of another nationality. 72% of the respondents don’t see any obstacles in having the relationships with the member of another nationality. Still answers of 20% of the respondents depend on the kind of partners’ nationality. Moreover 3 of asked girls and 1 of asked guys have already been in that kind of relationships. Respondents pointed out several most important problems that international couples usually face. Among them women pointed out: cultural differences and different mentality (60% of the respondents); the differences in the status of the woman in several cultures (63%). Guys pointed out: different mentality (81%) and cultural differences (63%). Only 27% of the young men think that differences in status of the woman in some countries could be an obstacle for international relationships. It could turn so because women in real life more often face to discriminations.

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2.2 USA

Age when relationships start

According to our survey and based on the official statistics, Americans start dating early, some of them – at the age of 11 or 12. American culture also gives emphasis on sexual expression in relationships. In the United States, young people aged 15-24 represent 25% of the sexually experienced population.

Number of partners

Girls in the relationships more monogamous than boys and prefer meet with one partner but for a long time. Average number of partners for girls is 5, for boys is 10.6, but average number of enduring relationships for girls is 12 months, for boys is 5.6 months. Girls value quality of relationships more than number of partners. As for boys, the quantity of partners is

more important than stability in relationships.

How long should people date before getting married

The most part of respondents agreed that about a year of relationships is enough to get married with the partner. We have found out that boys have arguable answers about the marriage: one part of male respondents think that they are ready to get married tomorrow if they really love a partner (30%), still there are guys who don’t see any sense in formalization of the relationships (31%). The girls hold the opinion that dating for a year before marriage is enough (52.6 %).

Relationships in public

Americans are very uninhibited and they like showing their feelings on public kissing and touching each other for pleasure. And they can’t see any barriers to demonstrate their relationships in different places, but everything should be within reasonable limits. According to survey, boys tend to public display of affection more than girls.

Parents’ influence on relationships

Americans consider that parents can make decisions because they care and have experience in relationships, but the best way would be to ask them for advice now and again, but not have them force on relationships whenever you didn't ask for it.

Just as mothers influence their son's general feelings toward women, fathers influence their daughter's general feelings about men. If a father lavishes praise on his daughter and demonstrates that she is a worthwhile person, she'll feel very good about herself in relationship with men. But if the father is cold, critical or absent, the daughter will tend to feel she's not very lovable or attractive.

Criteria that youngsters use when choosing a partner

American youngsters mark out three main criteria: partners’ human values (character, sense of humor etc.), partners’ appearance and the attitude of the partner toward him/her. However opposite genders have stated different priorities among these criteria. As for human values, this point is more important for girls (77.5%) than for boys (52.5%). Young men draw more attention on the appearance of the partner (50.9%). Researches also found out that for young women the second criterion is the attitude of the partner towards her (72.3%), but boys tend to take into consideration the positive opinion of family about partner (61%). All respondents put partner's family (parents' status in society, relations within the family, etc.) on the last position, but for boys it’s a little bit more important (26%, opposed to 20 % for girls).

Relationships with the person from other nationality

The USA is a big country with different people living there. This country combines people with different cultures, nationalities, religions, races. Having difference does not have to have a detrimental effect on your relationship as long as you continue to respect each other and your different beliefs. All respondents answered that it makes no difference what nationality

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their partner has, love is what matters. But the most acute problems that youngsters face during the relationships are language barrier, religious difference, cultural differences.

2.3 South Korea

Age when relationships start

Dating in Korea depends on individual people, but the average Korean starts dating around high school age (from 17-19 years old). Due to the fact that many schools are separated by gender, some Korean youths might not kiss someone of the opposite sex until they reach college age or beyond.

Analyzing the data of our survey we found out that the average age for relationships in Korea is 18.5 for male, 18.3 for female.

Number of partners

Koreans yearn for love, they are very romantic. So Koreans treat love and relationships more serious then Americans and Russians. That’s why they have fewer partners during their premarital relationship. As our survey shows the average number of partners for male from 18 till 27 is 2.7, for female – 2.5.

Duration of relationships

Duration of relationships is longer then in other compared countries: 19.5 months - for male and 18.6 months for female. Obviously it is connected with Korean shyness and serious attitude toward the love. Korean men tend to let a relationship work out slowly. It's in their culture. But if they truly like girl, they eventually gather up the courage to tell her how they are really feeling.

How long should people date before getting married

Today accepted age for marriage is continuously increasing. For women it is connected with their desire not to opt out of marriage immediately, but think about her education and future profession. That might impress men, who once asked «Is she pretty?», but now ask «What does she do?» Because in modern Korea men concern not only about beauty above all other women’s qualities (as their parents do), but also their education and profession.

Sometimes Koreans even try to cohabit before marriage. If the question «Should couples live together before tying the knot?» was asked 20 years ago, most Korean respondents would have expressed their shock and disbelief, much less show any willingness to weigh pros and cons. Back to the present Koreans are not so ultraconservative any longer and the number of Korean couples trying out cohabitation is on the rise.

Relationships in public

The Statement that Koreans aren't comfortable with PDA (public displays of affection) doesn’t exist anymore. Today PDA is everywhere in Korea. In fact, Koreans love PDA more then they love the person who they are engaging in PDA with.

If arm linking, star gazing, cheek pecking, ice cream licking, crumb wiping, body snuggling, shy giggling, eye fluttering, hand holding, and sweet whispering is involved, you can bet your bottom dollar that a Korean is in love. But hardly you can see kissing couple on the street, even today it’s not common behavior in Korea. Anyway, they want to show the world they love each other.

Parents’ influence on relationships

Parents consider the qualities such as partner’s character, his/her place in society and the ability to produce good children. In their opinion the age difference is not so important. They believe that man’s money and the woman's good looks ensure happy relationships. So for them the reputation of the family name is more important than individual happiness. But it’s just parent’s opinion. Young generation have different values. Parents and children views are not identical anymore. So the influence of parents and relatives on relationships is distinctly decreasing. Our survey confirms that. As for sexual relationships before marriage, young Koreans don’t tell their parents about their private life.

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Relationships with the person from other nationality

It is difficult to find a Korean parent who wasn't opposed to international marriage. In spite of it in recent years, international marriages have increased rapidly in Korea. Almost one of every 10 Korean marriages is international marriage. Perhaps it is connected with a rising number of foreigners in Korea, increase of studding abroad and changing views of Korean young people, who think that children who were born from international marriage have the advantage for learning two cultures and languages.

That’s why 98% of all respondents said that they don't see any obstacles for dating person from other nationality if they love him/her. And again we can see the value of love in Korean relationships. But Koreans mentioned some acutest problems in international relationship, such as Language barrier, Cultural differences, Differences in family relations, family traditions, meanings of family, Different religion, Different mentality, Differences in statuses of man and woman.

Conclusion

Gender relationships are not simply states, nor are they just affective, continuous places where we experience our emotions and feelings. These relationships are a very important part of our lives that gives us valuable experience and knowledge.

Relationships are taken differently in different countries and cultures, as well as they have different embodiment. People look at their relationships and its development in a different way, but nobody doubts that relationships play important role, helping us to perceive the world and better understand other people and ourselves.

During our research we found out a lot of interesting facts about relationships and its aspects, we communicated with many people in Russia and other countries and conducted comparative analysis. We proved some our beliefs and broke some existing stereotypes.

The main conclusion that we have come to is that the field of relationships is changing as time goes by. People change their attitudes and priorities. The culture is also a very influential aspect. When you consider human values as the main criterion choosing your partner, it doesn’t mean that the-same-age person in Saudi Arabia does the same. All these issues are very important, and when analyzing situation in different countries it’s very crucial to take all those peculiarities into account.

We also proved that situation when international relationships take place is not a rare phenomenon anymore. In the time of globalizing world people are becoming closer too and sometimes it seems like there are no boundaries when it comes to feelings and relationships. This trend was not as common, say, twenty years ago, but now we see and meet more and more people having partners and dates from another country.

We took few aspects of relationships for our research, but we are planning to continue our work in future. We are planning to cover other aspects, for example differences in age and social status in relationships, how youngsters spend their time in relationships, what signs of attention and gifts give to each other. We also found that relationships with representatives of different countries can be a separate big research that we consider doing in the nearest future! We believe that our project will be a good start and a good base for further research on this issue!

Gender relationships before marriage being it romantic, exciting, continuing or routine are fundamental aspects of human relationships that need our attention and understanding. Maybe if we knew more about this part of relationships, we could avoid some negative things in further stages of interaction between genders.

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References

1.Acitelli, L.K. (1993). You, me, and us: Perspectives on relationship awareness. (pp. 144–174.). Newbury Park: SAGE.

2.Allan, G.A. (1993). Social structure and relationships. (pp. 1–25). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

3.Allen, K.R., & Walker, A.J. (2000). Constructing gender in families. (pp. 1–17). Chichester, UK: Wiley.

Anastasia Nikulina,

3rd year student,

English Language in Professional Communications,

Institute of Foreign Languages

Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service

RUSSIA, CHINA AND THE USA – PROVIDING FOR COMMON FUTURE

Russia is not only in Europe, but also in Asia…

And what is more, Asia might very well become our main way out.

F.M. Dostoevsky

Since October of 1949 “the great triangle” of Moscow, Beijing and Washington have been in the foreground of the world history. It used to be up to those three “giants” to pursue the world politics until 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. In the course of time China was also surpassed by the power of the United States. For a long time we have been experiencing the supremacy of the USA over the rest of the world. And today speaking about the so-called “balance of powers” becomes particularly important.

Nowadays the world has two recognized centres of economy, science and culture. These are the North Atlantic and Eastern Asia. The United States of America and People’s Republic of China. The two sides are striving for leadership. On the other hand, our country lies between them. And taken as a third part Russia has a right to choose which partner to cooperate with. Depending on this choice we may either create the “balance of powers” or be taken over by the winner side.

In my presentation I would like to make a brief observation of what the consequences of the choices may be.

Possible alliance with China

First of all, let us see in what way China benefits from such an alliance. The most important ones will be: Russian natural resources (gas and oil), military equipment and the support in case of the deterioration of relations with the US and Japan.

Finally, what is the benefit for Russia in choosing China? Most likely this alliance would help to solve the territorial disputes in the Far East and Siberia in a friendly manner. Also, in case with the “northern territories” of Japan Russia will receive a powerful backing from

China. Moreover, our country will gain more political weight in the relations with the European Union and the US. Some experts believe that collaboration with China will only improve Russian-American relations. There is also a point of view that Russia can do little about the immigration of the Chinese people, so why not make this flow well-ordered? The People’s Republic of China has accumulated phenomenal spare funds (primarily from the trade with America), and these funds can become a base for international investments into our

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country. Even more than that, China’s high technology is developing rapidly and cooperation with Chinese companies will increase the technological growth of our production.

Russia and China may have resembling interests and the alliance between the two is important. This includes acting in the frames of Shanghai Organization of Cooperation as a counteraction to the enlargement of North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Moreover, the fact that most of the border disputes have been settled shows that Russia and China are able to cooperate well.

On the other hand, demonstrating such preferences to the US might not be safe. American officials and the White House have been treating Russia as an ally. Disappointing them may make America turn to some other countries to seek for alliance. And there is no guarantee that those countries will be friendly to us.

It is obvious that China will not be going in for charity in Russian-Sino relations either. Chinese experts believe that through this alliance and because of the decreasing population of Russia the land to the East of Urals will be given to them.

Possible alliance with the United States

Several divisive issues that arise in Russian-American relations by many analysts are considered normal due to different national interests. More than that all of these disputes may be solved as the pluses of the cooperation between the countries surpass its minuses.

Let us examine what major profit America will have from this alliance. Most important for the US is nuclear arms reduction issue. Cooperation with Russia in this aspect will help solve Iranian crisis.

What does Russia derive from this alliance? Our highest expectations are to ensure Russian ownership of the Far East and Syberia. Other expectation is the economical and technological help. It is important to specify that economical help (besides the investments) would be based on the increase of Russian import into the US.

Besides, most of the Russian population lives in the European part of our country where the influence of the American cultures is even bigger than in the East of Russia. So many of Russian people can hardly imagine what Asian culture is like. As a result, they view American-Russian alliance as a more possible one.

Those are the two possible ways that our country may step into.

It is very important to mention that while in many cases Russia will have to make a choice between American or Chinese way, there are still some spheres in which all the three countries collaborate together. A good example of it is so-called “scientific triangle” or a project named GLORIAD (Global Ring Network for Advanced Application Development). It is sponsored by the three governments and is designed to unite scientific communities (involving teachers, professors, scientists and students to contribute into international scientific research).

This example shows that cooperation of all the three countries IS possible when the interests of all the three are met.

In a word, it is up to major politicians to make a choice. From my part I may say that choosing one way (one country) does not mean refusing to interact friendly with the other one; it also crucial to keep in mind the possibility of uniting the efforts of all the three counties to succeed.

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Kristina Avanesyan,

5th year student, Management Department, Khabarovsk State Academy of Economics and Law Scientific adviser: Natalia Y. Pavlova PhD in Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor

DESTRUCTIVE POWER OF TOURISTS

This article is devoted to destroyable effects of tourists’ actions. Worldwide examples of tourists chopping off the parts of ancient churches, attacking the artworks, carving their names in the world famous sites reveal an international problem of preservation and protection of the World Natural and Cultural Heritage. Hunting for keepsake tourists started actions that boarder upon vandalism. Does tourism ruins everything it touches? What measures could be taken to prevent the disappearance of the World Famous Sites? The author tries to answer these questions and the most important one: “What is more destroyable and dangerous for the whole World Heritage: time, natural force or …tourists?”

«Everything in the world is afraid of time, only time is afraid of pyramids», said ancient

Egyptians. So they built the mysterious pyramids, immortalizing a name of the pharaoh in time and space. The pyramid has reached us as a firm symbol of eternity and fearlessness to the time. Unfortunately nowadays something more destructive and frightful than the time not only for the Egyptian pyramids, but for the whole world heritage has appeared. This destructive phenomenon has a name – “tourists”. Tourists can bring damage, mutilate beyond recognition or even destruct cultural and natural heritage of the world. The effect of one tourist’s action can be more destructive than wear and tear of time in combination with the natural force. Great example of tourism destructive influence can be Norway. Thousands of tourists have become the cause of destruction of the unique wooden churches in the historical places and nature reserves in Norway. It’s not a secret that for many tourists it has become a ritual to bring home some local souvenirs. On the other hand, many tourists prefer not to spend their money on buying local handicrafts, pictures, etc. Following the possibility of getting free keepsake they just chop off wooden pieces from the churches! Now the scale of these small actions could be compared with vandalism.

These “chopping off” actions of tourists in Norway have lead to that fact that the ancient church in Eidsberg is on the edge of destruction. A lot of huge holes have been made in the wooden walls for many years of such “pilgrimage”. Restorers can offer only carbonizing as a form of reconstruction of the church. However, carbonizing in combination with the age of the building and its general condition has lead to condition when outward wall can fall down at any moment. The only way out that locals see now is preventing the cause itself – to ask the tourists to take care of the church and to stop vandalizing actions. Many notes have been posted on the whole territory of the historical complex and at the entrance to the church, they urge the visitors: “The time and the severe climate of Norway couldn’t destroy this unique church. Please, do not be the one who will destroy it!”

Sorry to say, but it seems that tourists desire and aspiration to travel and see the historical places has turned into obsession. Now tourists don’t want just to come and see, but to touch, probe, scan and take part of the history back home in their pockets. Tourist doesn’t judge the morality of his action supposing that he is the only one who takes a stone from a cathedral as a souvenir. But what if each of the tourists visiting the cathedral has the same thoughts? What if there are 1000 people visiting this cathedral everyday and taking stones from the walls as a keepsake? Will it be possible to calculate the years or even months or weeks, when this cathedral is disassembled and taken to pieces?

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It’s amazing, but after reviving comeback after World War II tourist industry has barely reached its 64th birthday. Paradox is that this 64-year-old industry can put an end the centuries-old history of the whole world heritage all being taken back to tourists’ houses and flats and being put on their dusty shelves. No wonder, the question of protection and providing security to the natural and cultural heritage has been raised so many times.

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) encourages the identification, protection and preservation of cultural and natural heritage around the world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity. This is embodied in the international treaty called the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted by UNESCO in 1972. In 2008there were 878 sites in “World Heritage” list: 678 cultural, 174 natural, and 26 mixed properties, in 145 countries. Each

World Heritage Site is the property of the country on whose territory the site is located, but it is considered to be in the interest of the international community to preserve each site.

UNESCO makes a lot of attempts to protect the world heritage sites. However, sometimes travel agencies go against the grain. Their unwillingness to help UNESCO with preservation and security of the sites can be explained by colossal growth in amount of travelling people, as a result the rise in volume of sales of tour-packages brings in high profits to the tourist companies. For example, UNESCO is concerned about condition of worldfamous Machu Picchu site. Machu Picchu (Peru) is an ancient site that was constructed in the height of the Inca Empire at about 1460. After long research and investigations the scientists came to conclusions that Machu Picchu is located in hazardous area – the hills are unstable and can crumble at any second. The site needs careful handling, which is opposite to extremely growing number of tourists in Machu Picchu. The site discovered in 1911 is visited now by more than 1000 tourists daily. Archaeologists in liaison with ecologists and Peru officials came out with a rescuing plan of the world famous site. Nevertheless, the tourist industry holds back the implementation of this plan: it neither wants to cut off the number of excursions nor to decrease the number of tourists.

Unfortunately, many countries and cities can’t cope with rapidly growing number of tourists and can’t provide proper safety of the sites situated on their territory. For instance, poor Venice with all its magnificent glory and exquisite beauty wasn’t able to cope with the crowds of tourists on one hot day in 1987. The city had to be closed for all visitors. In the same city, in 2004, a man was arrested. He attacked with an axe and damaged few priceless monuments aged 5 centuries. In this case, it’s obvious that tourism quite often borders upon vandalism. Ex-mayor of Venice, Paolo Costa, declared, that it’s more difficult to protect

Venice from a vandal than from a terrorist. He said that unpredictable actions of an insane man are more frightful than the explosion of the bomb.

In continuation of the subject, vandalism is one of the causes of the irreversible disappearing of the World heritage. Many psychologists see the reason for vandalism in people’s subconsciousness: vandals just become obsessed with one idea of destroying any particular piece of art. Otherwise, other psychologists call such vandalizing behavior as a displaying of “Herostratic fame”. Herostratic fame is a crime of random violence as a means of achieving fame, “fame at any cost". Back in 356 BC, young man named Herostratus set fire to the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus. Herostratus committed this crime in order to immortalize his name in history. He was executed to death, also it was forbidden to mention his name. However, once his name was recorded it could never be erased from the history. The burned temple was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. By that time the history of the temple counted 1000 years, but in one night it burned to ashes because of Herostratus.

Generally that is hunger for fame pushes many people to destroy world famous sites, as Herostratus did a long time ago so that people could remember him. For example, in 1956

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Bolivian man stood beyond the picture “Mona Lisa” in the Louvre and then he just took out a stone and threw it into the painting. Since then “Mona Lisa” has had a noticeable mark on the left elbow. Until that time nobody could even imagine that something dangerous like that could happen with this piece of art. In 1974 when “Mona Lisa” was in Tokyo another vandal threw a bottle filled with ink into it. Luckily, by that time the painting had been protected with glass. Later the painting was hidden behind bulletproof glass and even got its own room in the Louvre.

It seems strange that the artworks are protected from the connoisseurs of art. The paintings are hidden behind the glass not only to protect them from the dust, but they are hidden behind bulletproof glass so that the visitors are unable to break the glass and damage the painting. Fences are erected around ancient buildings… The reason for erection is actually not the possible collapse of a wall or redecoration works, but the fear of the government that tourists can approach the building so close so that they can take a stone out of the wall as a souvenir. Alarm system, security officers, separated guarded room for one artwork, videotaping, what not…It happens, that the World Cultural and Natural Heritage nowadays must be protected from tourists.

Janny Rodary has didactic story called “The man who wanted to steal the Coliseum”.

One greedy and narrow-minded young man wanted to possess the Coliseum himself. For that reason he came to that World Wonder with empty bags and filled them with the stones and bricks, taking apart the Coliseum every day. Time passed, the man got old and became disabled, he could hardly step in his house – it was full of stones. As for the Coliseum, it still was a magnet for all visitors and main tourist attraction in Rome. The man understood how miserable his dream was: it is impossible to steal or destroy the Coliseum. It belongs to the history, to all humanity. Also, in VI century it was said: “When the Coliseum stands – Rome will stand. When the Coliseum falls down – Rome will fall down. When Rome falls down – the whole world will fall down”. But what would happen if not only one man came to the

Coliseum everyday and took it apart brick by brick? What if he had 10 or 15 friends to help him? Doubtlessly, they would manage to disassemble it very fast. In this case the story of Janny Rodary would not be so didactic. Besides, when the Coliseum falls down, the whole world will still stand. Tourists just will find another destination to travel.

In conclusion it’s worth mentioning that paintings, buildings, sculptures and pyramids once were in the spotlight as the symbols of the centuries and now they are the part of the history. People can feel and smell the scent of the history in every stroke, twist or stone. The world heritage belongs not to any particular tourist, but to the whole humanity. If one man tries to destroy any site that will mean he wants to destroy the whole history, he wants the mankind to suffer. People make history, but at the same time they are the one who protect and safe this history for the sake of next generation. During the blockade of Leningrad (1942 - 1944) the first thing that people in the beleaguered city did was that they hidden all the statues, covered the golden domes of churches and dug into the ground paintings and artworks. All their actions were caused by fear: people were afraid that fascist shells could destroy all the beauty of the city, all the world famous artworks. Even at that hard time people believed that when the war ended, the history would be saved in all those carefully hidden, dug and covered artworks. The faith protected all that magnificent beauty of St. Petersburg that still magnetizes tourists all over the world.

To sum up I’d like to tell that, unfortunately the global understanding of preservation and protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage is still a delusion. At the entrance to one of the ruined temples of Petra in Jordan, there is an inscription chiseled into the soft red rock. It looks as if it has been there for centuries. It could have been carved by one of King Herod’s soldiers, when they were imprisoned in the town in 40 BC. However the closer inspection reveals that the inscription is not so ancient. It reads: “Shane and Wendy from Sydney were here, April 16, 1996”.

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Pavel Nadzhyk,

4th year student, International Economic Relations Department, Far Eastern Institute of International Relations Scientific advisers: Elena N. Albey, Lydmila A. Fisyk, Instructors

INSURING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY: PROBLEM OF CLIMATE

The climate is changing. The earth is warming up, and there is now overwhelming scientific consensus that it is happening, and human-induced. With global warming on the increase and species and their habitats on the decrease, chances for ecosystems to adapt naturally are diminishing. Many are agreed that climate change may be one of the greatest threats facing the planet. Recent years show increasing temperatures in various regions, and/or increasing extremities in weather patterns. This report looks at what causes climate change, what the impacts are and where scientific consensus currently is.

Global warming and climate change refer to an increase in average global temperatures. Natural events and human activities are believed to be contributing to an increase in average global temperatures. This is caused primarily by increases in “greenhouse” gases such as

Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

What is the “Greenhouse Effect?” The term “greenhouse” is used in conjunction with the phenomenon known as the “greenhouse effect”:

-Energy from the sun drives the earth’s weather and climate, and heats the earth’s surface;

-In turn, the earth radiates energy back into space;

-Some atmospheric gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases) trap some of the outgoing energy, retaining heat somewhat like the glass panels of a greenhouse;

-These gases are therefore known as greenhouse gases;

-The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature on Earth as certain gases in the atmosphere trap energy.

It’s better to make a picture in order to create an image in minds of those, who read it. Note: image below expresses energy exchanges in watts per square meter (W/m2).

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Six main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) (which is 20 times as potent a greenhouse gas as carbon dioxide) and nitrous oxide (N2O), plus three fluorinated industrial gases: hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). Water vapor is also considered a greenhouse gas. Many of these greenhouse gases are actually life-enabling, for without them, heat would escape back into space and the Earth’s average temperature would be a lot colder. However, if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, then more heat gets trapped than needed, and the Earth might become less habitable for humans, plants and animals.

Carbon dioxide, though not the most potent of greenhouse gases, is the most significant one. Human activity has caused an imbalance in the natural cycle of the greenhouse effect and related processes. NASA’s Earth Observatory is worth quoting the effect human activity is having on the natural carbon cycle, for example:

“In addition to the natural fluxes of carbon through the Earth system, anthropogenic

(human) activities, particularly fossil fuel burning and deforestation, are also releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. When we mine coal and extract oil from the Earth’s crust, and then burn these fossil fuels for transportation, heating, cooking, electricity, and manufacturing, we are effectively moving carbon more rapidly into the atmosphere than is being removed naturally through the sedimentation of carbon, ultimately causing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations to increase. Also, by clearing forests to support agriculture, we are transferring carbon from living biomass into the atmosphere (dry wood is about 50 percent carbon). The result is that humans are adding ever-increasing amounts of extra carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Because of this, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are higher today than they have been over the last half-million years or longer”.

For decades, greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide have been increasing in the atmosphere. But why does that matter? Won’t warmer weather be nicer for everyone?

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A documentary aired on the National Geographic Channel in Britain on August 9, 2003 titled What’s up with the weather. It noted that the levels of carbon dioxide for example, were currently at their highest levels in the past 450,000 years.

Increased greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect is feared to contribute to an overall warming of the Earth’s climate, leading to a global warming (even though some regions may experience cooling, or wetter weather, while the temperature of the planet on average would rise).

Consider also the following: 1) The five warmest years on record, in order (warmest first) are: 1998; 2002; 2003; 2004; 2005. 2) According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the 1990s was the warmest decade. 3) The 1900s was the warmest century during the last 1,000 years.

However, it is the rapid pace at which the temperature will rise that will result in many negative impacts to humans and the environment and this why there is such a world-wide concern.

Most scientists believe that the warming of the climate will lead to more extreme weather patterns such as:

-More hurricanes and drought;

-Longer spells of dry heat or intense rain (depending on where you are in the world);

-Scientists have pointed out that Northern Europe could be severely affected with colder weather if climate change continues, as the arctic begins to melt and send fresher waters further south. It would effectively cut off the Gulf Stream that brings warmth from the Gulf of Mexico, keeping countries such as Britain warmer than expected;

-In South Asia, the Himalayan glaciers could retreat causing water scarcity in the long run. While many environmental groups have been warning about extreme weather conditions

for a few years, the World Meteorological Organization announced in July 2003 that “Recent scientific assessments indicate that, as the global temperatures continue to warm due to climate change, the number and intensity of extreme events might increase.”

The WMO also notes that “New record extreme events occur every year somewhere in the globe, but in recent years the number of such extremes have been increasing.” (The WMO limits the definition of extreme events to high temperatures, low temperatures and high rainfall amounts and droughts.) The U.K’s Independent newspaper described the WMO’s announcement as “unprecedented” and “astonishing” because it came from a respected United

Nations organization not an environmental group!

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Super-Storms

Mentioned further above was the concern that more hurricanes could result. The link used was from the environmental organization WWF, written back in 1999. In August/September 2004 a wave of severe hurricanes left many Caribbean islands and parts of South Eastern United States devastated. In the Caribbean many lives were lost and there was immense damage to entire cities. In the U.S. many lives were lost as well, some of the most expensive damage resulted from the successive hurricanes.

In its wake, scientists have reiterated that such super-storms may be a sign of things to come. “Global warming may spawn more super-storms”, Inter Press Service (IPS) notes.

Interviewing a biological oceanography professor at Harvard University, IPS notes that the world’s oceans are approaching 27 degrees C or warmer during the summer. This increases the odds of major storms.

-When water reaches such temperatures, more of it evaporates, priming hurricane or cyclone formation.

-Once born, a hurricane needs only warm water to build and maintain its strength and intensity.

Furthermore, “as emissions of greenhouse gases continue to trap more and more of the sun’s energy, that energy has to be dissipated, resulting in stronger storms, more intense precipitation and higher winds.”

There is abundant evidence of an unprecedented number of severe weather events in the past decade, [professor of biological oceanography at Harvard University, James] McCarthy says. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch killed nearly 20,000 people in Central America, and more than 4,000 people died during disastrous flooding in China. Bangladesh suffered some of its worst floods ever the following year, as did Venezuela. Europe was hit with record floods in 2002, and then a record heat wave in 2003.

More recently, Brazil was struck by the first-ever recorded hurricane in the South Atlantic last March.

“Weather records are being set all the time now. We’re in an era of unprecedented extreme weather events,” McCarthy said.

Historical weather patterns are becoming less useful for predicting the future conditions because global warming is changing ocean and atmospheric conditions.

“In 30 to 50 years’ time, the Earth’s weather generating system will be entirely different,” he predicted.

Ecosystem Impacts

With global warming on the increase and species’ habitats on the decrease, the chances for various ecosystems to adapt naturally are diminishing.

Many studies have pointed out that the rates of extinction of animal and plant species, and the temperature changes around the world since the industrial revolution, have been significantly different to normal expectations.

An analysis of population trends, climate change, increasing pollution and emerging diseases found that 40 percent of deaths in the world could be attributed to environmental factors.

Jaan Suurkula, M.D. and chairman of Physicians and Scientists for Responsible Application of Science and Technology (PSRAST), paints a dire picture, but notes that he is only citing observations and conclusions from established experts and institutions. Those observations and conclusions note that global warming will lead to the following situations, amongst others:

-Rapid global heating according to a US National Academy of Science warning;

-Dramatic increase in greenhouse gas emissions;

-Ozone loss aggravated by global warming;

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-Ozone loss likely to aggravate global warming;

-Warming of the oceans leads to increased green house gasses;

-Permafrost thawing will aggravate global warming;

-Oceanic changes observed that may aggravate the situation;

-A vicious circle whereby each problem will exacerbate other problems which will feedback into each other;

-Massive extinction of species will aggravate the environmental crisis;

-Sudden collapse of biological and ecological systems may occur, but will have a very slow recovery;

-While effective measures can decrease global warming and other problems the World community has repeatedly failed to establish cooperation.

Rising Sea Levels

Water expands when heated, and sea levels are expected to rise due to climate change. Rising sea levels will also result as the polar caps begin to melt.

Rising sea levels is already affecting many small islands.

The World Watch Institute reports that “[t]he Earth’s ice cover is melting in more places and at higher rates than at any time since record keeping began”. (March 6, 2000).

Rising sea levels will impact many coastlines, and a large mass of humanity lives near the coasts or by major rivers.

Rising or falling sea level can reshape the world’s coastlines and affect some of the most densely populated areas on Earth. Not surprisingly, scientists want to understand sea level as thoroughly as possible. They have discovered that the ocean’s behavior is not uniform all over the world; neither are the factors that affect sea level. When sea level rises, it can do so for a few reasons. It can rise due to thermal expansion—the tendency of warm water to take up more space than cooler water. It can rise due to the addition of water, for instance from melting glaciers. It can also rise due to changes in salinity; fresh water is less dense than salt water and therefore takes up slightly more space than an equal mass of salt water.

Differences in Greenhouse Gas Emission Around the World

As the World Resources Institute highlights there is a huge contrast between developed/industrialized nations and poorer developing countries in greenhouse emissions, as well as the reasons for those emissions. For example:

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-In terms of historical emissions, industrialized countries account for roughly 80% of the carbon dioxide buildup in the atmosphere to date. Since 1950, the U.S. has emitted a cumulative total of roughly 50.7 billion tons of carbon, while China (4.6 times more populous) and India (3.5 times more populous) have emitted only 15.7 and 4.2 billion tons respectively (although their numbers will rise).

-Annually, more than 60 percent of global industrial carbon dioxide emissions originate in industrialized countries, where only about 20 percent of the world’s population resides.

-Much of the growth in emissions in developing countries results from the provision of basic human needs for growing populations, while emissions in industrialized countries contribute to growth in a standard of living that is already far above that of the average person worldwide. This is exemplified by the large contrasts in per capita carbons emissions between industrialized and developing countries. Per capita emissions of carbon in the U.S. are over 20 times higher than India, 12 times higher than Brazil and seven times higher than China.

The United States is the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases. It:

-Accounts for roughly four percent of the world’s population;

-Accounts for approximately 23% of global emissions and 42% of industrialized country emissions.

The European Union (E.U.), if considered as a whole (for it is more comparable to the U.S.):

-Accounts for roughly 3 percent of the world’s population;

-Accounts for around 10% of global emissions and 24% of industrialized countries' manmade emissions of the six main gases;

-Recent years have seen a reduction in emissions from those initial 15-member states. However:

-It is not near the level required;

-For the 2003, emissions from EU countries have actually increased slightly (though still remaining slightly lower than 1990 levels).

Kyoto protocol

The Kyoto Protocol was the climate change treaty negotiated in 1997, setting targets for emissions of greenhouse gases.

In order to be binding under international law, the treaty would need ratification from the countries responsible for around 55% of the global greenhouse gas emissions of 1990.

The U.S. being the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases, pulled out in 2001, leaving treaty ratification dependent on Russia, responsible for 17% of world emissions. Russia has to cut emission levels from the Soviet days, and their emissions in the past decade has been far less, so it should not pose as much of a problem to reduce such emissions.

Noting the above, the BBC commented on this adding that Kyoto was only ever a first step – now discussions on the next, more stringent, target on greenhouse gas emissions can begin.

Problem of Global warming being ignored

For a very long time, something of contention and debate in the U.S. had been whether or not a lot of climate change has in fact been induced by human activities, while many scientists around the world, Europe especially, have been more convinced that this is the case.

In May 2002, the Bush Administration in the U.S. did admit a link between human activities and climate change. However, at the same time the administration has continued its controversial stance of maintaining that it will not participate in the international treaty to limit global warming, the Kyoto Protocol, due to economic priorities and concerns. (More about the Kyoto Protocol, U.S. and others’ actions/inactions is discussed in subsequent pages on this section.)

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Throughout the 1990s, especially in the United States, but in other countries as well, those who would try and raise the importance of this issue, and suggest that we are perhaps overconsuming, or unsustainably using our resources etc, were faced with a lot of criticism and ridicule. In addition, it has been known for some time that developing countries will be affected the most. Reasons vary from lacking resources to cope, compared to developed nations, immense poverty, regions that many developing countries are in happen to be the ones where severe weather will hit the most, small island nations area already seeing sea level rising, and so on. German Watch published a Global Climate Risk Index in December 2009 that attempted to list the nations that would be affected the most from climate change based on extreme weather such as hurricanes and floods.

Between 1998 and 2007 they found these were the most affected nations: 1 Honduras; 2 Bangladesh; 3 Nicaragua; 4 Dominican Republic; 5 Haiti; 6 Vietnam; 7 India; 8 Mozambique; 9 Venezuela; 10 Philippines.

Many Sources of Greenhouse Gases Being Discovered

Pollution from various industries, the burning of fossil fuels, methane from farm animals, forest destruction, rotting/dead vegetation etc have led to an increased number of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. And, as international trade in its current form continues to expand with little regard for the environment, the transportation alone, of goods is thought to considerably contribute to global warming via emissions from planes, ships and other transportation vehicles. (For more about trade and globalization in its current form and how it affects the environment, as well as other consequences, visit this web site’s section on Trade,

Economy, & Related Issues.)

Even sulphur emitted from ships are thought to contribute a fair bit to climate change. (If you have registered at the journal, Nature, then you can see the report here.) In fact, sulphur based gas, originating from industry, discovered in 2000 is thought to be the most potent greenhouse gas measured to date. It is called trifluoromethyl sulphur pentafluoride (SF5CF3).

NewScientist.com reports (December 22, 2003) on a study that suggests soot particles may be worse than carbon dioxide in contributing to global warming. The soot particles also originate from industry, and during the industrial revolution, was quite common. While on the positive side there is less soot these days and perhaps easier to control if needed, alone, as one of the scientists of the study commented, “It does not change the need to slow down the growth rate of carbon dioxide and eventually stabilize the atmospheric amount.”

NewScientist.com and others have also reported (August 2005) that the world’s largest frozen peat bog is melting, and could unleash billions of tones of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere. An area the size of France and Germany combined has been melting in the last 4 years. In addition, “Western Siberia has warmed faster than almost anywhere else on the planet, with an increase in average temperatures of some 3°C in the last 40 years.”A scientist explained a fear that if the bogs dry out as they warm, the methane will oxidize and escape into the air as carbon dioxide. But if the bogs remain wet, as is the case in western Siberia today, then the methane will be released straight into the atmosphere. Methane is 20 times as potent a greenhouse gas as carbon dioxide.

Environmental situations in different countries 1. Germany

Long-term weather recording shows that Germany is already affected by climate change. Regarding temperature development, the 1990s were observed to be the warmest decade in Germany during the 20th century, in accordance to the global observation. The annual average temperature increased by ca. 0.8 to 1ºC between 1900 and 2000. However, this warming did not occur linearly. A strong warming up to 1911 was followed by a heterogeneous period. The 1940s were exceptionally warm.

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After a cooling trend up to the 1970s we now observe a continuous and rapid temperature increase that still continues today. There is strong regional variation. In the last decade (1990s), the temperature rise in southern and south-western Germany was exceptionally strong. Observations on seasonal trends in the warming depend on period in time and method.

During the last twenty years a trend toward stronger temperature increase in winter than in summer has been observed. For example, the temperature increase in the winter months in

Germany during the period between 1981 and 2000 was 2.3ºC, while in the summer months it was merely 0.7ºC.

Precipitation in Germany is characterized by strong regional and seasonal variations. In the long term, neither the average values nor the seasonal or regional distribution show significant trends. During the last 100 years there has been a small trend towards increased winter precipitation, but this trend is not significant. In the last 30 years, however, there was indeed a definite increase in winter precipitation. Summer precipitation in contrast showed little change. Changes in the duration of snow cover are also relevant. Since 1950, a decrease by 30-40% in the duration of snow cover has been observed in altitudes below 300m in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. In the medium altitudes (300-800m) the decrease was 1020%. In higher altitudes over 800m only small decreases and in places even increases were observed, due to increased winter precipitation and sufficiently low temperatures for snowfall.

There is only partial evidence for an increase in climate extremes, such as heat waves, extreme rainfalls and storms. Extreme heat events, such as heat days (T>30ºC) or heat waves (intervals of more than three days during which the maximum daily temperature lies above a certain high threshold, relative to the specific temperature standard of the weather station) exhibit a definite trend. For example, the probability of occurrence of heat days in the months of July and August has risen over the last one hundred, and especially markedly during the last twenty years at almost all weather stations in Germany. The intensity and frequency of occurrence of extreme rainfall events have increased especially during the last forty years of the 20th century.

In general, this trend is more pronounced in the winter than in the summer. The intensity and frequency of occurrence of squalls have also been investigated. However, at present no statistically significant trend can be found. There is a tendency of increased probability of occurrence of extremely high daily wind speed maxima (Bft > 8) during winter (with the exception of coastal regions), and decreased occurrence of such maxima in summer (with the exception of southern Germany).

With regard to future temperature development, all ATEAM scenarios that were analyzed in this study exhibit a definite warming trend for Germany. The range of warming of the long-term annual average temperatures up to the year 2080 within the seven climate scenarios considered was +1.6 to +3.8ºC. Many scenarios show a particularly strong warming in the south-west, in some cases also in the far east of Germany. The scenarios exhibit heterogeneous seasonal changes. The trend of stronger warming during winter, observed in the past, cannot be found in the future scenarios.

All climate scenarios show very small changes in annual precipitation, which lie mostly below 10% up to the year 2080. Stronger trends can be found in winter and summer precipitation. All seven climate scenarios show an increase in winter precipitation, while most scenarios show a decrease in summer precipitation. This is in accordance with the observed trend of a shift of precipitation into the winter half year. An especially pronounced increase in winter precipitation was projected for Southern Germany, at least in the scenarios that are based on the climate model HadCM3. In these scenarios, the decrease of summer precipitation is concentrated on Southwest Germany (Rhineland) and central parts of Eastern Germany. However, the projections of the other climate models partly produce regionally contradicting trends.

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2. Japan

Extreme summer heat, humidity and pollution already lead to excess cardio-respiratory illness and mortality in Japanese cities. Data collected for the over 65 year-old age group suggest that the threshold temperature for triggering excess summer heat-related mortality is about 33 C; the greatest increase in mortality is associated with days on which afternoon temperatures and humidity are high, and wind speeds low. Increased temperatures are also associated with increases in the concentration of ground-level ozone in metropolitan areas and this in turn is associated with increased frequency of asthma attacks, severe respiratory irritation and decreased pulmonary functions.

There are 4 scenarios of future climate situation in Japan: from the most desirable to the worst. They are given on the next page.

This leaflet is one of a series produced for WWF that describe state-of-the-art climate change scenarios for a number of countries and regions around the world. The scenarios use observed climate data held by the Climatic Research Unit, a set of preliminary greenhouse gas emissions scenarios prepared for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), and a series of recent climate change experiments performed using seven global climate models, results from which are available through the IPCC Data Distribution Centre.

Japan warms slightly more rapidly than the global average. Warming is slightly greater in winter than in summer, and greater over northern Japan compared to southern Japan. Summer warming varies from about 0.1°C/decade under the B1-low scenario compared to more than

0.3°C/decade under the A2-high scenario.

Future climate change is likely to exacerbate this situation with more hot summers in Japan and more intense heat waves occurring in these hot summers. For the Tokyo region, we calculate that hot summers currently occurring just once a decade, will be occurring in between 41 and 98 per cent of years by the 2050s depending on the scenario. Winters will also become very much milder.

3. Great Britain

Britain has become twice as stormy in the past 50 years as climate change has forced the deep depressions that used to hit Iceland further south, it was revealed yesterday. In a second disturbing discovery, the Hadley Centre for climate prediction and research in Exeter added that pressure changes in the atmosphere had caused storms to become more intense.

While low pressure areas which bring high wind and rain are getting deeper, the high pressure areas which bring calm, settled periods are getting stronger. The increased gradients between the two make for more dramatic weather - and for insurance companies, expensive claims for damaged buildings and fences. Drier summers, wetter winters - and little snow.

Average annual temperatures may rise by between 2 and 3.5 C by the 2080s, with greater warming in the south and east than in the north and west of the UK. Hot, humid summers will become more frequent and very cold winters will become increasingly rare. The 1990s was the warmest decade in central England since records began in the 1660s and this warming of climate over land has been accompanied by warming of UK coastal waters. 2003 is on track to be the warmest year on record. Winters will become wetter and summers may become drier across all of the UK. The largest changes will be in the south and east, where summer rainfall may decline by up to 50% by the 2080s. The amount of snow could decline by 60%-90% by the 2080s. Snowfall will decrease throughout the UK. The reductions in average snowfall over Scotland might be between 60% and 90% (depending on the region)

Average sea level around the UK is now about 10cm (4ins) higher than in 1900 and levels could be between 26 and 86cm above the current level in south-east England by the 2080s. Extreme high water levels, which currently have a 2% annual probability, could become 10 to 20 times more frequent at some east coast locations. The thermal growing season for plants in central England has lengthened by about one month since 1900.

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Conclusion

While those denying climate change are reducing in number and there appears to be more effort to try and tackle the problem, climate scientists are now fearing that climate change is happening far faster and is having much larger impacts than they ever imagined.

The Arctic plays an incredibly important role in the balance of the earth’s climate. Rapid changes to it can have knock-on effects to the rest of the planet. Some have described the Arctic as the canary in the coal mine, referring to how canary birds used to be taken deep down coal mines. If they died, it implied oxygen levels were low and signaled mine workers to get out.

But now, scientists are fearing changes are happening to the Arctic much faster than anticipated. Despite computer climate models predicting loss of Arctic sea ice by 2050 to 2080, some scientists fear it could be as soon as 2015. The BBC notes similar concerns by scientists, with one quoted as saying the sea ice is “so thin that you would have to have an exceptional sequence of cold winters and cold summers in order for it to rebuild.”

The Arctic reflects much sunlight back into space helping keep earth temperate. More melting will result in less reflection and even more heat being absorbed by the earth. A chain reaction could result, such as the Greenland ice sheet melting (which will actually increase sea levels, whereas the melting of Arctic ice will not because it is sea ice), possibly increasing the melting of permafrost in Siberia, which will release huge amounts of methane (as noted above), and rapidly change climate patterns, circulation patterns and jet streams, far quicker than what most of the environment could adapt to easily.

All mentioned should make the world society understand, that only a deep collaboration of countries can help to solve the problem. But as we see, they haven’t even had serious conferences on this question. All we can is to hope that UNO and other institutes of international relations won’t ignore this really global issue anymore.

References

1.www.globalissues.org

2.http://commons.wikimedia.org

3.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_rise

4.http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=6638

5.www.worldviewofglobalwarming.org

6.www.bbc.co.uk

7.www.guardian.co.uk

Evgeniya Belevich,

3rd year student, Institute of Economics and Management, Pacific State University

CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH: HAPPY MEMORIES OR DELUSIVE DREAM?

Nowadays many countries experience an increase in the numbers of street children/youth, and a corresponding rise in public awareness of their existence.

Public perceptions of street children/youth are often quite negative. For many children/youth on the street, family and community support crumble under the pressure of poverty. Many of those who migrate to the streets learn to confront the street with selfreliance. They must survive by whatever means and negotiate the everyday risks and decisions of living on the streets.

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Children and youth at risk on the street are often either grown up on the streets, or come to urban centers either in search of opportunity or after leaving home due to family and/or mental health problems. They often deal with issues such as substance abuse, being branded as criminals, having health problems and irregular work in the unorganized sector or as manual labourers. Today’s youth will become the largest generation to enter adulthood.

Street children may be found on every inhabited continent in a large majority of the world's cities. According to UNICEF, an estimated 100 million children worldwide live at least part of their time on the streets. There are no precise categories defining street children. They may be defined as those children who, when they experience family problems, hunger, neglect and domestic violence, escape from their homes and live part time on the streets. They are child workers, permanently on the streets and engaged in scavenging, child labor, begging, peddling drugs and petty theft. Their rights are frequently abused by the police while on the streets. The girls are sometimes raped in custody and forced to hand over their daily earnings. They suffer sexual abuse, rape, physical abuse, verbal battering, rejection, malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea and dengue. Most street children are illiterate.

The rise in numbers of street children is often linked to changes both in economic systems and social provision, such as diminishing state welfare services. For example, it has been claimed that there were no street children in Mongolia prior to 1990 and the economic reforms following political change: now many children take refuge in winter in underground heating systems. In Romania street children have notoriously taken to living in sewers: a recent attempt by police to round them up and send them away failed. Western countries undertaking market reforms also experienced an increase in street children. In Britain, large numbers of homeless 16-17 year olds appeared on the city streets in the late 1980s following changes in government welfare policy, while in 1995 in one northern city, groups of children under 14 years were visibly living on the streets. /4/

In a 1993 report, WHO offered the following list of causes for the phenomenon: family breakdown, armed conflict, poverty, natural and man-made disasters, famine, physical and sexual abuse, exploitation by adults, dislocation through migration, urbanization and overcrowding, acculturation. The orphaning of children as a result of HIV/AIDS is another cause that might be added to this list. /8/

In short, on the one hand, there are some common causes of enlarging number of street children/youth in many countries of the world, on the other, every country has got its specific reasons why this phenomenon takes place.

So what can be done to stop or slacken the pace of growing level of floating children?

As an aspect of globalisation some international standards for the lives of children were introduced. Coincidentally they were contemporary with the onset of economic reforms following political change in the former Soviet Union, and the use of Structural Adjustment Polices, or austerity programmes, required by World Bank and IMF. /4/

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has now been ratified by virtually all countries with a recognised government, except the USA. The impact of the CRC is not limited to responsibilities of ratifying states in implementation and reporting, because donor agencies and states increasingly use the concept and practice of human and child rights as a measure, standard and framework for financial and other aid.

Today the convention stands as the single most widely ratified treaty in existence. Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1989, the promises of this historic document include children’s rights to life; to be free from discrimination; to be protected in armed conflicts; to be protected from torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; to be free from arbitrary deprivation of liberty; to special treatment within the justice system; and the rights to education, health care, an adequate standard of living, and freedom from economic exploitation and other abuse.

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However, for countless children around the world, these promises have been broken. The armed conflicts that rage in all quarters of the world have produced appalling abuses of children’s rights. Hundreds of thousands of children have been pressed into service as soldiers. Millions have become refugees - displaced from their homes, often separated from their families; their future and safety uncertain. Children living outside war zones may also be subjected to routine violence. Street children on every continent endure harassment and physical abuse by police. Even schools, intended to promote the healthy development of children, may be the site of abuse against children. In some countries, the use of corporal punishment by teachers has resulted in injury and even death. In others, gay and lesbian students endure harassment and violence by their peers, while school authorities fail to intervene. Millions of children have no access to education, work long hours under hazardous conditions, or languish in orphanages or detention centers where they endure inhumane conditions and daily assaults on their dignity, in violation of the rights guaranteed to them under the convention.

Consequently, with the hundreds of thousands of children and youth at risk on the street enduring poverty and abuse, governments, non-governmental organizations and international bodies are searching for interventions to ensure the well-being of future generations, and ultimately, the economy and society as a whole.

When governments implement programs to deal with street children these generally involve placing the children in orphanages, juvenile homes or correctional institutes. However, some children are in the streets because they have fled from such institutions and some governments prefer to support or work in partnership with NGO programs. Governments sometimes institute roundups when they remove all the children from city streets and deposit them elsewhere or incarcerate them.

As for non-government organizations, they employ a wide variety of strategies to address the needs and rights of street children. These may be categorized as follows: advocacy, preventive programs, institutional residential rehabilitation programs and full-care residential homes, street-based programs (feeding program, medical services, legal assistance, street education, financial services (banking and entrepreneur programs), family reunification, dropin centers/night shelters, outreach programs) and conscientization. /8/

As another solution to the discussed problem some countries find in entrepreneurship. As a multifaceted phenomenon that cuts across disciplines it can be used to denote a way of thinking, reasoning, and acting which is opportunity-oriented. It is much more than starting a new business. Rather, it is a process whereby individuals become aware of the selfemployment career option, develop ideas, take and manage risks, learn the process and take initiative in developing and owning a business. In the context of street children and youth, entrepreneurship programmes can encourage economic empowerment, enhance incomegenerating ambitions and abilities, enable basic business management skills for operating micro-enterprises, and provide access to microcredit for the initiation of business ventures. Children and youth at risk often encounter a need for autonomy and independence, the skills for survival and the determination to survive. These qualities provide great starting points for future entrepreneurs. /1/

Then, education may also stand for a solution of the raised in the article questions. It is counted as an approach that tries to bring responsive children into the school system by providing support and encouragement and regular follow-up and monitoring. In the context of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, formal education is often seen as a magic wand of sorts, best suited towards empowering children. But a closer look at the situation shows that street children develop certain characteristics that make entry into formal education difficult.

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The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, in article 28, recognizes the right of the child to education. No matter how socio-economically disadvantaged, state parties are meant to offer free, compulsory primary education to all, and to encourage the development of different forms of secondary education, making them available and accessible to every child.

Vocational training is often introduced instead of formal education as a quicker, more suitable means to equip children and youth at risk with marketable skills.

Life skills training for children-at-risk in livelihood programmes is essential. As livelihood programmes are meant to ready children at risk for a future as a working adult life skills training becomes necessary.

Alongside life skills, an important factor in providing a holistic livelihood programme is teaching children how to save money. Being encouraged to save money allows children not only to plan for the future, but to create ways to channel the entrepreneurial skills that are needed to direct them into income generation and employment.

Street children themselves are sometimes trained to become street educators themselves. They belong to the peer group and are respected and accepted. They help to break down the lack of trust that street children have of social workers and helpers. Maximum participation of children in the work is a sign of best practice. Non-formal education on the street is an indication of this.

The children are helped to find income-earning activities to support themselves on the streets, such as washing cars, guarding parking areas, working as shine boys, selling products on the streets and selling plastic bags around the markets. Sadly, some are made professional beggars, drug couriers, pimps and child prostitutes. /3/

Solutions also can be found in fair trade and by creating jobs for the parents of street kids. This is one of interventions to break the cycle of poverty passed on from parents to children.

Drop-in centers for street children are common in the major cities, but they are vulnerable to the children’s love of the freedom they have on the streets. The dropout rate can be high.

There is the added difficulty of providing sufficient care that will make a difference in the lives of the children. The centers provide basic needs and shelter but the programs are usually short-lived. When children do stay longer, they are referred to centers that provide care for the long term. Residential live-in centers are expensive projects and there are not many of them. Unless they are placed in an area remote from the street and efforts are made to locate and bring the parents into the process of helping the children, their success rates will be low, as many children will be enticed to go back to the streets. /7/

Regular contacts by dedicated social workers with groups of street children may play an important role in improvement of hazardous conditions of street children/youth. The workers may relate with the children to win their trust, offer legal and personal protection against acts of abuse by the authorities and work to release the children from jails and holding cells or to get charges against them dismissed. Basic needs such as clothes, food, medical help and shelter when needed should be provided. Efforts may be made to contact parents and enable the child to visit the parents. Part-time work for older children should be provided when possible.

Livelihood opportunities for parents of the street children may also be provided by different programmes. Thus the child becomes valuable to the family, as the child is a source of financial assistance. Livelihood programmes for parents are at times an aspect of street contact, as are meetings, outings and non-formal education. There is no attempt to take the children off the streets unless they are willing to enrol in school or agree to take non-formal education courses.

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the traditional culture – myths, traditional world-perception and language they were nearly fully-preserved. Before the 1930’s every person among Evens was native-speaker and wore traditional national suite. He or she also knew a lot of traditional superstitions and had deep knowledge in the sphere of reindeer-herding. And of course every person could live in taiga and tundra because he or she was ready to do it at any moment. This knowledge was a part of traditional Even culture and was given from generation to generation thanks to their system of bringing-up children when parents teach their kids everything they know. It is traditional pedagogy and it is studied by ethnologists and ethno psychologists. Unfortunately under Soviet influence a lot of elements of such pedagogy were lost and many aspects of traditional culture as well.

One of the basic elements of Soviet Cultural Revolution was general education for national minorities. General education was given in Russian that led to the fact that Even language became not the first, but the second. Now Evens of the Bystrinskiy District are not native-speakers, in fact, they are second-language speakers, that’s why in some years this language will be called dead1. Nowadays children are taught Even at school twice a week up to the 9-th form, but they speak Even only at schools and sometimes at home with grandparents and great-grandparents. Children are also taught Magadan Even Dialect (as all student’s books and dictionaries were published in it)2, as to Bystrinskiy Even Dialect it is called vanishing and is being actively explored every day because native-speakers are disappearing. Now for everyday communication Russian is used. Vanishing of Even language some ethnologists call the main disadvantage of general education for national minorities. The fact that children are taught Even at school doesn’t change the situation at all, because they are taught Even as a foreign language and for youngsters Even remains a foreign language3 such as English or French of German, that is also compulsory. As you know one foreign language is an integral part of general education in Russian Federation, it is included into State Educational Standard. At the State Educational Standard regional component is declared. Teaching Even is a part of realization of this component in general education in the Bystinskiy District.

A lot of elements of traditional culture are closely connected with the native language. They are myths and folklore (as there hadn’t been Even written language before 1930’s), and traditional world-perception of course. Studying in Soviet schools according to State Educational Standard Even people lost a lot of elements of their traditional culture. They had to speak only Russian, they had to study Russian and Soviet history and culture, they were limited in communication with their parents, grandparents and great-grandparents (grown-up people lived in tundra working as reindeer-herders and their children lived in villages at the hostels). Because of that middle-aged persons that are nowadays parents don’t know a lot about their traditional culture, myths, superstitions, traditional crafts. Secular education broke down traditional Even system of world-perception. It’s impossible to restore this system because of new way of living (new professions, secular compulsory education, lack of knowledge about this system and alterations of consciousness, etc.) Of course not only Soviet

1Личный архив автора, полевые материалы этнографических экспедиций КамГУ в с.Анавгай 13-

23.03.2005г., 06.07-15.07.2007, 15.07-24.07.2008 гг.

2Балаганчик Е.Е. Слепцова А.Д. Картинный словарь эвенского языка. Пособие для учащихся начальных классов./Санкт-Петербург: Филиал из-ва «Просвещение», 2002. – 144с.:ил.; Бурыкин А.А. Русскоэвенский разговорник./Магадан: Кн.изд-во, 1991, 134стр.; Программа и хрестоматия по развитию речи для эвенских дошкольных учреждений и для родителей, ведущих кочевой образ жизни: Пример. система методов обучения дошкольников родному языку./Магадан: Кн.изд-во, 1993. – 55стр. Текст рус.,; Роббек В.А. Словарь эвенско-русский и русско-эвенский: пособие для учащихся школ./Ленинград: издательство «Просвещение», 1988. – 263стр.

3Личный архив автора, полевые материалы этнографических экспедициий КамГУ в с.Анавгай 13-

23.03.2005г., 06.07-15.07.2007, 15.07-24.07.2008 гг.

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educational system is to blame for it. Alterations in the traditional Even consciousness began long before appearing of USSR. They began in the XVIII-th century during the Christianization of national minorities in Russian Empire. Evens for instance had become Christians by the beginning of the XIX-th century1. When they arrived in Kamchatka they were Orthodox Christians without exceptions. But frankly speaking the most crushing blow was hit in 1930-1960’s by the Soviet Cultural Revolution that had changed traditional Even consciousness radically. Only in 1960-1970’s began so called National Culture Renascence when a lot traditional crafts were renewed and many folklore ensembles appeared then.

Another disadvantage of general education for national minorities could be called the problem of the way of living. Having received school education many Even people usually want to get higher or vocational education or special education. Living in big cities they get used to it and after graduating from educational establishments they prefer to stay in the cities, they don’t want to come back. Another problem is the choice of a profession for youngsters because the traditional professions and occupations such as a reindeer-herder or a deerstalker or a hunter are not popular and prestigious among them. According to the author’s field materials got in 2007-2008 in Anavgay (the village in the Bystrinskiy district) the most popular professions and occupations are a worker of life-saving service, a singer or a dancer, a militiaman, an economist, a lawyer, less popular professions are a teacher, an interpreter. As you can see these professions are professions of social service and quantity of such vacancies in villages is limited, that’s why many young specialists have to stay in the cities of

Kamchatka or even in the cities of other regions if they want to find a job according to their profession.

As to professions and occupations that could be useful in Even villages they are a reindeer-herder or a deerstalker or a hunter or a fisherman or a traditional craftsman. Except their unpopularity it’s difficult to receive such education. For instance, there is the only technical school where one can receive the profession of a reindeer-herder in Kamchatka. It is situated in Palana (one of Kamchatkan villages) that is too far from the Bystinskiy District and it’s too difficult to get there from Anavgay and Esso (Even villages in the Bystrinskiy

District). And of course quantity of students is limited 15-20 persons per year. Thanks to

Soviet oppression of traditional culture a lot of “professional secrets” of reindeer-breeding that were taught from generation to generation are lost now. Another problem is the difference between Koryak and Even line of reindeer-herding. Koryak people breed reindeer for meat and skin and fell and transportation of weights in tundra, as to Even people they besides that use reindeer for riding (like a horse). That’s why there is a difference between

Koryak and Even methods of reindeer-breeding. Many ethnologists blame Soviet system of general and secular education for vanishing traditional knowledge and “professional secrets” in this field.

Except disadvantages general education for national minorities has many profits and gives a lot of opportunities for further education. Among the obvious advantages of such education is that pupils are taught according to State Educational Standard and have got a real chance to enter any higher or vocational educational establishment in our country. They can get any profession they want and change their social status2, their way of living if they want it so much. Many Evens graduated from the universities and technical schools, they became teachers, writers, and even scientists. But there is a backside of changing social status also. Nowadays psychologists and ethnologists are discussing the problem of cultural chock and

1Look for details Гурвич И. С. Этническая история Северо-востока Сибири. – М., 1966, -270 стр.; Эвены // Народы Сибири. – М., Л., 1956, - 1006 стр.; Коеркова А. Влияние православия на Камчатских эвенов.// сб. материалов V ежегодной научно-теоретической конференции «Человек в истории» 22-23 декабря 2005г.

вып. 4, Петропавловск-Камчатский, 2006.

2Гуревич П.С. Человек и культура: Основы культуроведения.- М., Дрофа, 1998, - 384стр.

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fearing of the future. These psychological problems lead to the destruction of human’s personality1. As to ethnofors (persons-carriers of traditional culture and knowledge) of vanishing traditional cultures they tend to be influenced by other cultures and circumstances. Changing of traditional way of living could be painful for them, but it is difficult for every person.

One more advantage of general education for national minorities is appearing of written language. Many ethnoses hadn’t got their own writing language and they had to hand down myths, folk songs, knowledge from one generation to another in oral form. Because of that many elements of traditional culture such as songs and myths, proverbs, fairy-tales, etc. were irretrievably lost. Appearing of writing language and local native-speaking intelligentsia helped to preserve unique cultural heritage (1960-1970’s could be called the time of flourishing ethnology and ethnography because of active collecting folk songs, dances, etc/ and active studying of different ethnoses). Based on Russian letter-system Even writing language is easy to learn one for Russian native-speakers2.

Obvious plus of general education is the acquirement of computer technologies that helps ethnofors living far from their native villages communicate with each other and their relatives and friends who are still living there. These ties help such people feel united with their ethnos and not to lose elements of their traditional culture. Nowadays secondary education is compulsory for every person living in Russian Federation3. That’s why general education could be called inevitable evil. Of course there should be ways of optimization educational process that will allow to preserve elements of traditional culture of national minorities and to receive education according to State Educational Standard.

These ways are (on author’s opinion):

-effective usage of regional component of secondary education (patriotic lessons, optional subjects and elective courses devoted to traditional culture, way of living, history of ethnos and local history),

-usage of ethos’s language at the patriotic lessons, optional subjects and elective courses to make it more actively used and more widely-spread among youngsters,

-further education (folk-dancing circles, folk-crafts circles, etc.),

-career-guidance (advertising professions that could be demanded at the villages where ethonofors live),

-popularization of the traditional way of living at schools and educational establishments, discussing its advantages and disadvantages.

There are a lot of training aids published by WWF, UNO, UNESKO and other international organizations and Soviet and Russian scientific-research institutions4 as well together with scientists who study ethnical cultures and their way of living. These training appliances are being created to save elements of unique vanishing traditional cultures (such

1Гуревич П.С. Человек и культура: Основы культуроведения.- М., Дрофа, 1998, - 384стр.; Иоффе А. Н. Методические материалы по гражданскому образованию «Книга ресурсов» Учебное пособие. - Москва:

ООО «Издательский дом «Новый учебник», 2003, 120стр.

2Роббек В.А. Словарь эвенско-русский и русско-эвенский: пособие для учащихся школ./Ленинград: издательство «Просвещение», 1988. – 263стр.

3«Закон Российской Федерации «Об образовании» (1992г. и в редакциях Федеральных законов 1996, 1997, 2000, 2005гг.)

4Национальные блюда народов Камчатки. Малая народная энциклопедия среды обитания и образа жизни аборигенов Камчатки и Командорских островов. - РИО КОТ, Петропавловск-Камчатский, 1993, - 47стр.; Программа и хрестоматия по развитию речи для эвенских дошкольных учреждений и для родителей, ведущих кочевой образ жизни: Пример. система методов обучения дошкольников родному языку./Магадан: Кн.изд-во, 1993. – 55стр. Текст рус.; Легенды и мифы Севера: Сборник /сост. В.М. Санги/ - М., Современник, 1985, - 355стр.; Баскин Л.М. Как пасти оленей. В помощь преподавателям средних школ Камчатки и Чукотки. - Петропавловск-Камчатский: Издательство «Камчатпресс», 2008, 56 стр. Черканов К. С. Эвенские сказки. - Петропавловск-Камчатский, Изд-во КамГУ, 2006, - 47 стр.

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as folk-songs, myths, fairy-tales, proverbs, riddles, jokes, etc.), and, of course, they could be used in the process of teaching at the ethnical villages. Thanks to appearing of the written languages a lot of dictionaries of the vanishing languages were published and many poems, novels and stories as well.

Tatiana Efremova,

5th year student, International Economic Relations Department, Far Eastern Institute of International Relations Scientific adviser: Elena N. Albey, Instructor

PREVENTING ALCOHOLISM, SMOKING, DRUG ABUSE

AMONG YOUTH IN AUSTRALIA

Alcoholism problem in Australia

One of essential problems of Australia is alcoholism among youth. On the statistician, in this country about half of children at the age from 11 till 18 years at least once, but tried in the lives alcohol. Nevertheless, despite appeals of local doctors to enter an interdiction for sale of alcohol about 21 years, the government has left restrictions on sale of alcohol since 18 years.

As the prime minister of Australia Kevin Radda marks, similar «draconian methods» are unfair in relation to youth. «As it is possible to forbid the 18-year-old person who is allocated by the right of a selective voice, drives the car and is obliged to pay taxes, to buy that he wants», – the prime minister explains. Thus he has added that government problems include propagation of a healthy way of life that the desire to buy hard liquor did not appear at rising generation, informed AMI-TASS.

Let's remind that else in the end of April the government has increased twice the duty by the low alcohol drinks known as "alko-pops". In a result, their cost has increased on 50 cents. However demand for these drinks among youth and has not fallen, but the federal treasury has replenished on 3,1 billion dollars Increase in the state gathering opposition names «a tax lawlessness», besides, teenagers should consume stronger alcohol, and it at all does not solve a problem of an alcoholism.

The way is found in Australia to kill bent for to alcohol. Scientists of the Melbourne Institute of a name of Howard Flori have spent a number of researches for creation of a preparation against alcoholic dependence - the problem decision consists in orexin to the brain system which blocking not only cleans desire to drink, but also does not suppose relapses.

Researchers led by Andrew Lawrence have developed the unique substance, allowing blocking euphoria effects orexin. The experiences spent on rats at which before it have developed alcoholic dependence (i.e. rats have made alcoholics), prove that the preparation can become an effective remedy in struggle against an alcoholism, its further studying however is necessary, after all while it is difficult to predict, as the medicine in a human body will lead.

But also at this stage doctor Andrew Lawrence heading group, already named results of research remarkable. "During one of experiments the rats that had an easy approach to alcohol, have stopped to drink it after reception orexin’s blocks".

According to Doctor Lawrence, at alcoholics also it is possible to prevent returning to alcohol. The rats who passed detoxication and have received a medicine, have not returned to the habit when "again have got to an environment, intended to cause in them associations with the alcohol use".

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He has informed: "Oreksin strengthens euphoria from the alcohol use. Therefore, if it will be possible to create a medicine blocking action orexin on the person we can suppress at alcoholics dependence on alcohol".

As he said, results of the given research also can be used for treatment of frustration of food behavior. The matter is that alcoholic dependence and frustration of food behavior are caused by operation of the identical mechanism in a brain.

Now scientists continue to make experiments on purpose to establish exact circumstances at which the system joins orexin’s. It will help them with medicine working out.

The alcoholism problem in Australia has reached national scale the Alcoholism in Australia expands to a problem of national scale, experts from the Australian national board on struggle against a narcotics and an alcoholism have declared.

According to the representative of Council Margaret Hamilton, passion to spirits is formed in families. According to the statistics data, on continent there is more than 450 thousand children live with parents-alcoholics. For this reason not less than 10 % of the Australian teenagers which have not reached majority, regularly take alcohol.

Hamilton considers that it is necessary to accept as soon as possible at the state level a number of extreme actions for the purpose of prevention of growth of an alcoholism which becomes already national trouble. As she said, the government has supported the offer on introduction of restriction on alcohol advertising that will allow though partially lowering high popularity of spirits.

Smoking

Representative research on a smoking problem is spent among the Sydney schoolboys (Australia, 1977). Among 12-year-old boys the non-smoking have made 87,1 %; 20 cigarettes and more in a week smoked 1,7 %, and among girls of the same age these indicators have made accordingly 95,4 and 0,5 %. With the years the share of smokers among schoolboys of both floors quickly increases. So, among 16-year-old boys the non-smoking made 61, 4 %, more than 20 cigarettes in a week smoked 25, 6 %, and among girls of the same age - accordingly 67,1 and 17,6 %.

Indirect methods of influence on smoking of teenagers: experience of Australia

In 1996 the Federal Minister of Health of Australia, doctor Michael Вулдридж, has appointed a small Ministerial Consultative group on Tobacco (MTAG) which included experts in the field of control researches over Tobacco, carrying out of campaigns and a policy in tobacco sphere. MTAG has received the order In partnership with the existing programs which are carried out on

To the state base to develop new and rather well financed Campaign which will approximately spend US$0.30 "additional" Money per capita during the 12-month's period. Strategic council MTAG to the minister consisted in concentrating on Smokers at the age from 18 till 40 years that is to conduct campaign the terminations, instead of campaign of prevention of smoking. Why? While Political parity of benefit and risk of the campaign obviously directed on Teenagers, the parity would be favorable for the Minister of Health, Benefit and risk in terms of efficiency for teenagers, possibly, it would be perfect other. Worse, than simply inefficient, teenage Campaigns bear high risk of unpleasant consequences ("Why carp to children when so many adults smoke? "," in your attempt to make "abrupt" Campaign to over persuade us, it is too much hypocrisy "). To honor the minister it is necessary to tell that it has accepted council to aim campaign at 32 % Smoking Australians at the age of 18-40 years. This strategy "the termination in First stage "subsequently has been confirmed on 10th World Conferences on Tobacco or Health in Beijing in the analysis of professor Richard Пето of that is the most perspective in the control over Tobacco.

It was thus accepted in attention that, on the ground that teenagers Want, that with them addressed, as with adults, they should react as adults on the campaigns addressed to the adult.

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It also has occurred in Course of this Australian National Campaign against Tobacco, in which course Comparable answers of persons 15-17-летнего age and 18-40-летнего have been collected Age. These answers force to assume that focused on Adults of campaign for the smoking termination have appeared more effective for Teenagers, than the campaign specifically aimed at them. In a year after the termination of the first intensive six-monthly wave of campaign There were проинтервьюировано 400 teenagers 14-17 summer age, that To estimate their reaction to campaign. Campaign has been based on the graphic Messages on effects for the health, intended for the termination Smoking among adult smokers. As a whole, teenagers considered Campaign as pertinent for them, pushing away teenagers from smoking and Forcing to perceive smoking as less "abrupt and desirable". They Also have informed that campaign was effective in, that acquaintances it Teenagers-smokers have stopped to smoke or have tried to make it. Though The estimation has been developed for measurement of changes in prevalence Smoking only in target group 18-40-летних, interrogation of teenagers shows, That the positive effect was observed also among youth.

Drugs

As to амфетаминов they are in great demand in Europe, especially to Czech and Poland, and also in Australia and the North America. ЛСД and other hallucinogens also are popular in Australia and the North America where them apply in 3-4 times more than in Europe. It concerns also cocaine which uses in 3 times a great demand in the USA, than in Europe. As to the heroin use, both in injections, and by means of smoking, this drug is much more popular in Europe, than in the North America, especially in the Eastern Europe. So, in Romania, Baltic and Russia heroin is the most popular drug among teenagers of 15-16 years. The great number of the young addicts, who take heroin, lives in Russia. Partly it is caused by the high prices for other strong drugs, for example, cocaine.

In conclusion, I should say that a lot of people suffer from such problems and they need our help. Everybody should understand that we need healthy generation in future and health in our modern life is very important.

Oksana Zhivilo,

5th year student, International Economic Relations Department, Far Eastern Institute of International Relations Scientific adviser: Elena N. Albey, Instructor

THE PROBLEM OF HOMELESSNESS IN RUSSIA

Annotation

In modern Russia’s society the problem of homeless children remains one of the most acute ones. Current situation on the level of the problem in Russia is being considered in the article with the analysis of existing ways to solve it on the state level. Reasons for inefficiency of current programs are revealed. As an alternative solution the author is offering to look at the experience of NGOs helping homeless children and orphans. Finally, the author provides her own vision of the situation with possible forecasts about its development.

Одна из самых животрепещущих проблем демократической России – беспризорность, которую породила крайняя бедность. Н. Крупская утверждала, что всему виной «разрушение общественных связей, вызванное войной и революцией». Ситуация с детской беспризорностью сегодня та же, что и после первой мировой войны и гражданской войны.

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Сегодня в российской столице насчитывается свыше 13 тысяч беспризорных детей. Единственный в Москве Центр временной изоляции несовершеннолетних правонарушителей принимает детей, лишь уже совершивших какое-то преступление. А после «отсидки», когда юные злоумышленники только-только привыкают к горячей пище и чистым простыням, их возвращают под родительский кров, который зачастую бывает в сто раз хуже любой тюрьмы, или назад на улицу. Есть ли у них шанс исправиться, живя в такой среде?

Милиция регулярно проводит рейды по подвалам, чердакам и вокзалам, собирая современных Оливеров Твистов. Их свозят в отделы инспекций, переписывают, самых неконтролируемых ставят на учет и… возвращают на те же улицы, в те же семьи, где они никому не нужны. А больше их девать некуда!

Сейчас в Москве 6 государственных приютов рассчитанных на 610 мест, и они переполнены. В результате выброшенные на улицу дети становятся легкой добычей преступников. И не менее 20 % из совершаемых ими преступлений происходит с наставления взрослых. Как актуально отметил Борис Грызлов: "Сегодня у нас 2,5 миллиона беспризорников, а завтра - столько же преступников".

Помимо государственных приютов существуют частные. И если первые финансируются из бюджета города, вторые живут на пожертвования организаций и отдельных граждан. Так принято во всем мире, с той лишь разницей, что за рубежом богатые люди с радостью предлагают приютам спонсорские услуги, причем движет ими не столько альтруизм, сколько трезвый расчет. Бизнесмен обретает налоговые послабления и прочие льготы. В итоге в выигрыше оказывается не только приют, но и его спонсоры.

Одна из таких организаций действует в Москве. «Врачи без границ». Международная организация, созданная много лет назад. Её отделения есть во всех уголках мира, в основном неблагополучных, в том числе и в России. Центр для бездомных детей, расположенный у Казанского вокзала, рассчитан на одновременное пребывание всего 20 человек. Сильно ли это поможет 13 тысячам бродяжек! По словам Кенни Глака, директора отделения «Врачей без границ», дети могут «поесть, помыться, отдохнуть, поиграть на компьютере». Ночевка в центре не предусмотрена: «мы не ООН, а организация, которая старается по мере сил помогать нуждающимся».

Но все ли дети хотят попадать под опеку социальных организаций? В милиции беспризорных детей ждет обязательное освидетельствование и в случае выявления малолетних наркоманов – принудительное лечение. Правда, наркологи и юристы предупреждают, что пользы от этого не будет. Как сказал заместитель главного врача 17-й наркологической больницы Москвы Сергей Золотухин: «если подросток не хочет лечиться, с этим ничего сделать нельзя. Лечить наркомана любого возраста без его желания избавиться от зависимости - это абсурд, это совершенно невозможно».

Суды принимают решения о лишении родительских прав тех, кто этого заслуживает с большой неохотой. И по какой причине? Детских государственных учреждений для безнадзорных детей катастрофически не хватает.

Материалы по профилактике преступности, полученные Управлением организации деятельности участковых уполномоченных милиции и подразделений по делам несовершеннолетних ГУВД г. Москвы:

В городе Москве отмечается рост числа преступлений, совершенных несовершеннолетними и при их участии. За 12 месяцев выявлено 3193 преступления со стороны этой категории лиц, что на 9,9 % больше, чем за аналогичный период прошлого года (2905). Удельный вес преступлений, совершенных подростками, к общему количеству преступлений, раскрытых за истекший год, и составляет 4,1 %, что значительно ниже, чем по России - 9,8 % и по ЦФО - 8,6 %.

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Всовершении преступлений приняли участие 3557 несовершеннолетних, что на 4,0% больше, чем за аналогичный период прошлого года (3 419). Удельный вес привлеченных к уголовной ответственности подростков составляет 5,7%, что значительно ниже, чем в среднем по ЦФО (10,6%) и по России (12,4%),

Вотношении 60 родителей возбуждены уголовные дела за уклонение от воспитания детей, жестокое обращение с ними (ст. 156 УК РФ).

На профилактических учетах ПНД состоит 565 несовершеннолетних, причисляющих себя к членам неформальных молодежных объединений.

Детский криминальный рейтинг по России

Высоким уровнем преступности в Южном округе отличились Астраханская область (более 9 процентов от всех преступлений совершают здесь подростки), Волгоградская область (8 процентов) и Ставропольский край (7,5 процента). Больше всего подростки повторно совершают преступлений в Кабардино-Балкарии, Северной Осетии и Калмыкии – на это идет каждый девятый. Лидерами по числу корыстных преступлений (кражам и грабежам) являются Дагестан (83 процента детской преступности), Ставропольский край (почти 80 процентов), Северная Осетия и Астраханская область (78 процентов).

Самый большой рост количества убийств, совершаемых несовершеннолетними, отмечается в Адыгее (за четыре последних года – в 6 раз), Калмыкии и КарачаевоЧеркесии (в 4 раза), в Ставропольском крае (в 1,5 раза). Больше всего детей, совершивших преступление в состоянии алкогольного или наркотического опьянения,

–в Адыгее (15 процентов от всех преступлений), Калмыкии (свыше 13 процентов) и Астраханской области (около 10 процентов).

Методы решения проблемы беспризорников

Методы решения этой проблемы на государственном уровне разработаны. В их числе: отлов и возвращение детей в семьи (если таковые имеются); оформление в интернаты, или колонии для несовершеннолетних преступников; или, в самом лучшем случае, организация усыновления в, так называемые, суррогатные семьи.

О том, что возвращать детей к их прежней жизни не имеет никакого смысла, отмечалось выше. Затраты огромного количества сил и средств на эту процедуру рождают только невозвращенцев, при первом удобном случае вновь оказывающихся на улице. Исключение, естественно, составляют дети из благополучных семей, влекомые на улицу романтикой и тягой к приключениям. Но для их адаптации к нормальным условиям жизни в семье требуются годы кропотливой работы специалистовпсихологов, по мнению которых положительный результат может быть достигнут в случае, если ребенок провел на улице не больше месяца. Говорить о вероятности положительных результатах не имеет особого смысла, так как всем известно, как работают правоохранительные органы, в обязанности которых входит контроль за беспризорниками (в том числе учет времени их пребывания на улице, задержание, передача в приемники органов опеки и попечительства, откуда ведется дальнейшее распределение), об исполнении которого свидетельствуют группы детей, которые мы можем видеть на улицах, вокзалах, в метро.

Естественно, когда ребенок уже совершил какое-либо противоправное действие, он должен понести наказание. Таких детей определяют либо в колонии для несовершеннолетних преступников, либо в интернаты с менее строгим режимом содержания. Не надо иметь медицинского образования, чтобы понять, что делает пребывание в этих местах с детской психикой. Унижение, издевательство, побои… Оттуда дети выходят социальными уродами, не умеющими жить в обществе - спиваются, становятся наркоманами, вливаются в криминальный мир или кончают жизнь самоубийством.