Гвоздева Пхысицс фор адванцед студентс 2011
.pdf2.We will break through to a complete theory of the universe.
3.We will understand fully the order the universe is governed by in the not-too-distant future.
4.This hope is just a mirage.
5.There will be no ultimate theory.
6.We will not find a consistent model.
Exercise 4 (in pairs)
You have different points of view. Contradict your partner. Model: The universe is a mystery.
The universe isn’t a mystery.
1.I agree with the view that the universe is a mystery.
2.The universe behaves in an arbitrary manner.
3.Very high particle energies occur in normal situations on the earth.
4.It is necessary to spend large sums on studying very high particle energies.
5.We must find out what happens at these energies because it is necessary.
6.A complete understanding of the universe is within our powers.
7.We can perceive the order the universe is governed by.
8.This approach is the only way to understand the universe.
9.We will find a consistent model that describes everything in the universe.
UNIT 2
THE LAWS OF NATURE
“Evolution is not something that applies to life here on earth; it applies to the whole universe. The universe required ten billion years of evolution before life became possible; the evolution of the stars and the evolving of new chemical elements in the nuclear furnaces of the stars were
the prerequisites for the generation of life. The laws that we understand as the laws of nature had to be finely tuned to make this possible.”
John Polkinghorne
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PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points. I. Model verbs can, could, may, might are used to indicate that it is possible for something to happen or to be = possible. Might is more unsure than may. Could is more unsure than can. Must is the most sure of all = highly probable
Study the sentences.
1.This can be just an illusion.
2.We may know the answer one day.
3.If the theory of inflation is correct, the universe must contain enough dark matter to bring the density up to the critical density.
There are four infinitives:
to do (simple), to be doing (continuous), to have done (perfect), to have been doing (perfect continuous)
a. We use a modal verb + sim-
ple infinitive for an action in the present or future.
b. We use a modal verb + perfect infinitive for an action in the past.
Study the sentence.
1.The equipment might not have withstood the temperature.
2.When I was a graduate student scientists did not believe that there must have been a big bang singularity and hence a beginning of time. Now nearly
everyone believes that the universe began with a singularity, at which the laws of physics broke down.
c.We use a modal verb + continuous infinitive to say that the action is developing as a process.
Study the sentence.
No-one in the early twentieth century suggested that the universe might be evolving with time.
d.We use a modal verb + perfect continuous infinitive to say how long the situation has been happening.
Study the sentence.
The universe can have been going only for a finite time.
II When we imagine a situation we use: would (could) + Vo for the present
would (could) + have V3 for the past
would Russian – бы could Russian – мог бы
Study the sentences.
1.The fact that nothing can travel faster than light means that the round trip to the nearest star would take at least eight years.
2.The observation of a black hole explosion would provide very important information on elementary particle physics, in-
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formation that might not be available any other way.
III. We use to V (in order to V) to talk about the purpose of doing something = why someone does something.
Study the sentences.
1. Our present variants of a complete unified theory contain
a number of quantities, like the size of the electric charge on a particle. The values of these quantities cannot be predicted by our theories. Instead, they have to be chosen to agree with observations.
Give Russian correspondence:
so (therefore), even though (even if), the way (how), by some amount, at one time (at a single point in time), otherwise (if it were different), the same, that is to say (that is), so far (up to the present moment)
SCIENCE IS A DECLARATION OF ORDER
“Order is the first heaven’s law.”
Pope, English poet
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
We look at the world we live in and find it a strange, exciting place, full of chaos, full of change. Science is a frame into which the world, as we see it, can sometimes be fit. In the world of science, order replaces chaos. Science is a declaration of order. It is the expression of the faith that the Universe lies under law, and that we can learn that law. In the world of endless change, science looks for whatever remains unchanging. Science tries to identify quantities that do not change under suitable conditions – energy, momentum, and mass. So, scientists talk about the law of conservation of energy, the law of momentum and so on.
Even though we may know the laws that govern the universe, we are not able to use them to predict far into the future. This is because the solutions to the equations of physics may exhibit [igzibit] a property known as chaos [keiə s]. What this means is that the equations may be unstable: slightly change the way a system behaves by a small amount at one time, and the later behavior of the system may soon become completely different. For example, if you slightly change the way you
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spin a roulette wheel, you will change the number that comes up. It is practically impossible to predict the number that will come up; otherwise, physicists could be making a fortune at the casinos.
The second law of thermodynamics formulated by a German physicist Ludwig Boltzmann states that the total amount of disorder in the universe (which is measured by a quantity called entropy) always increases with time. This, like the argument about human progress, suggests that the universe can have been going only for a finite [fainait] time. Otherwise it would have degenerated into a state of complete disorder, in which everything would be at the same temperature.
Stephen Hawking
“Life can only exist where the second law of thermodynamics operates – that is to say – where there is energy flowing from a higher level to a lower level.”
Colin Wilson
Vocabulary Notes
1.a frame – a hollow structure inside which you can fit something
2.to fit something into something – to place something into something
3.a faith – assurance
4.to remain unchanging – not to change
5.to identify – (here) – to specify – to select
6.suitable – appropriate – right for some purpose
7.to exhibit – to display
8.slightly – a bit
9.This suggests – This indicates
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. How do you perceive the world? Write a couple of sentences. II. Write out of the passage 4 definitions of science.
III. Answer the questions:
1.Why are physicists not making a fortune in the casinos?
2.Physicists state that the universe can have been going only for a finite time. How do they know?
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IV. You are supposed to read any text three times. First, you read and don’t understand; second, you read and understand what is written; third, you read and understand what is not written.
Read the passage for the third time and complete the sentences.
1.The universe lies ………….
2.The function of science is to …………………….
3.So far science has discovered ……………………..
4.The goal of science is to develop …………………. to describe everything.
5.A theory of physics is a ………………………..
6.A mathematical model is a …………………….
7.So, ……………………………………………….
8.Science is mostly concerned with ………. To measure something, you have to have a unit of measurement. For example, a second is a fixed unit to ………….; a metre is a fixed unit to ……. Statistical physics uses entropy as a unit of measurement. Entropy is a unit to………..
9.We live in ……………………….
10.Any system tends to ……. with time.
11.So, ……………………………..
V. Put in the prepositions.
1.We look … the world we live in and find it a strange, exciting place, full of chaos, full of change.
2.… the world … endless change, science looks … whatever remains unchanging.
3.Science tries to identify quantities that do not change … suitable conditions.
4.Slightly change the way a system behaves … a small amount … one time.
5.The total amount …disorder … the universe is measured … a quantity called entropy.
6.The total amount … disorder … the universe always increases …
time
7.The universe can have been going only … a finite time.
8.Otherwise, the universe would have degenerated … a state … complete disorder, … which everything would be … the same temperature.
9.Energy is flowing … a higher level … lower level.
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VI. Give words close in meaning. |
|
1. that is |
5. to display |
2. so |
6. a bit |
3. up to the present moment |
7. This indicates |
4. to place something into something |
|
VII. Study grammar point I and do the exercise.
Use may, might, can, could, must + Vor be Ving or have V3 or have been Ving.
1.This is just an illusion.
2.We will know the answer one day.
3.If the theory of inflation is correct, the universe contains enough dark matter to bring the density up to the critical density.
4.The equipment hasn’t withstood the high temperature.
5.No-one in the early twentieth century suggested that the universe is evolving with time.
6.The neutrino has a small mass.
7.We know the laws that govern the universe.
8.The solutions to the equations of physics exhibit a property called chaos.
9.The equations of physics are unstable.
10.The universe has been going only for a finite time.
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Checking up understanding
1.What does Hawking mean by ‘sometimes’ when he says that science is a frame into which the world can be fit?
2.How are laws discovered?
3.Why are we are unable to use the laws that govern the universe to predict far into the future?
4.What property may the solutions to the equations of physics exhi-
bit?
5.What does chaos mean?
6.What may the instability of equations result in?
7.What does the second law of thermodynamics state?
8.What is the total amount of disorder in the universe measured by?
9.What does the argument about human progress suggest?
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10.Why hasn’t the universe degenerated into a state of complete disorder so far?
11.At what temperature would everything be in a state of complete disorder in the universe?
Exercise 2 (do it yourself)
Analyze the sentences in terms of voice (active or passive) and translate them.
1.Почему мы не можем предсказывать далёкое будущее на основании тех законов, которые управляют вселенной?
2.Кто сформулировал второй закон термодинамики?
3.Что утверждает этот закон?
4.Какой величиной измеряется общее количество хаоса во вселенной?
5.Какой вывод можно из этого сделать?
6.Чем характеризуется состояние полного хаоса во вселенной?
UNIT 3
THEORY AND EXPERIMENT
“Everything that a man takes for granted in this universe can be questioned.”
Einstein
“The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of thinking”
Sir William Bragg (1862–1942)
PRE-READING TASK
Study some grammar points.
I. Ving – a verbal noun
We use by + Ving to say how something happens.
Study the sentences.
1.For a time I could communicate only by raising my eyebrows when someone pointed to letters on a card.
2.I wrote scientific papers by dictating to a secretary.
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3. In the 17th century Bishop Ussher calculated a date of 40004 BC for the creation of the universe, a figure he arrived at by adding up the ages of people in the Old Testament.
II. The Passive Voice
On the basis of a passive infinitive to be V3 we form passive sentences and prefer passive when it is not important who or what does the action.
In passive sentences we use be (is, are, was, were, has been, will be etc) + V3.
Study the sentences.
1.In the 1930s quantum mechanics was applied with great success to systems such as atoms or molecules, which have only a finite number of degrees of freedom.
2.The problem has been overcome.
3.The interactions are divided into four categories and are represented by integer-spin fields.
Note: In passive sentences modal verbs are followed by be + V3
Study the sentences.
1.I want to discuss the possibility that the goal of theoretical physics might be achieved in the not-too-distant future.
2.The values of these quantities cannot be predicted by our theories. Instead, they have to be chosen to agree with observations.
III. We use to + V to talk about the purpose of doing something = why someone does something.
Study the sentence.
We cannot apply physical laws to deduce human behavior.
IV. One is a personal pronoun and can be used as the subject of a sentence = You. It is a formal subject. One is not translated.
Study the sentence.
One has to be very careful about making these predictions.
V. If we want to emphasize a word or a part of the sentence we use this structure
It is ……. that ……. Study the sentences.
1.It was the paper on photoelectric effect that won Einstein the Nobel Prize.
2.It is quantum mechanics that is the necessary ingredient.
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VI. N + to V or N + to be V3
The infinitive after a noun characterizes it and expresses an action that can be done or must be done.
Study the sentences.
1.The phenomenon to be described does not fit into the framework of present day science.
2.Murray Gell-Mann has the kind of mind to deal with high energy physics.
3.It is quantum mechanics that is the necessary ingredient to determine how the universe should begin.
Give Russian correspondence:
the only (single), a way (a method, a technique), as (since, because), from (on the basis), then (after that)
THE JUDGE OF SCIENTIFIC TRUTH
Before you start reading the passage, study the quotations.
1. “The principle of science, the definition almost, is the following: the test of all knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the judge of scientific truth. It does not make any difference how beautiful your guess is; it does not make any difference how smart you are; who made the guess or what his name is – if it disagrees with experiment, it is wrong. But experiment is not the only judge of scientific truth. Observation, reasoning and experiment are the essential parts of a scientific research.”
Feynman
2. “A good scientific theory can be falsified by observation.”
Karl Popper
3. “The great tragedy of science is the killing of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.”
Thomas Henry Huxley
4. “I never came upon my discoveries through the process of rational thinking. In some cases imagination is more important than knowledge.” Einstein
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5. There is routine science, normal science and there are paradigm shifts. Routine science is done in industrial labs and it is almost technology. But science at its deepest level is an intensely creative activity, just like arts. People don’t realize how emotional an insight is when you almost suddenly find a new way of looking at things. People think that in science you just discover things, but you don’t invent. People think that the scientist discovers how the world works. But you have to imagine a beautiful new theory before you can verify it. The first step is an act of imagination. There is no systematic way to ask nature to reveal something which is a quantum leap forward.
Chitin, American mathematician
Note
a quantum jump – a quantum leap – a paradigm shift – a breakthrough
THE THEORY ALWAYS COMES FIRST
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
We cannot understand what is real about the universe without a theory. I take the view that a theory of physics is just a mathematical model that we use to describe the results of observations. A theory is a good theory if it is an elegant model, if it describes a wide class of observations and if it predicts the results of new observations.
In theoretical physics, the search for logical consistency has always been more important than experimental results. I am sure Einstein, Heisenberg and Dirac were simply concerned that the existing theories didn’t fit together.
Elegant and beautiful theories have been rejected throughout the history of science because they don’t agree with observation, but I don’t know a major theory that has been advanced on the basis of experiment. The theory always comes first, as it is put forward from the desire to have an elegant and consistent mathematical model. The theory then makes predictions, which can be tested by observation. If the observations agree with the predictions, that does not prove the theory; but the theory survives to make further predictions, which are again tested against observations. If the observations do not agree with the predictions, one abandons the theory.
Stephen Hawking
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