Гвоздева Пхысицс фор адванцед студентс 2011
.pdfwas possible in the past = (Russian – возможно было); might is more unsure than may.
Study the sentences.
1.The development of DNA might have completely replaced any earlier form of life.
2.This might have been a remarkable coincidence.
Give Russian correspondence:
Yet (but), it is likely, it is unlikely, hardly, since (as, for, because), a number of (a set of, a range of), on (further), few (a small amount), thus (so, therefore), original (initial), as (shows an action in a process), to lead to (to result in, to give rise to), both … and, eventually (finally), dramatic (sudden and radical), ultimate (complete), the more ……, the less; the very, so (therefore)
HOW DID LIFE ORIGINATE ON EARTH?
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
What follows is my personal attempt to answer this question. I don’t claim any great originality or depth, but it is the best I can do at the moment. My answer to this question is based on Darwin’s idea of natural selection. I think that some very primitive form of life arose spontaneously on earth from chance combinations of atoms. This early form of life was probably a large molecule. But it was probably not DNA, since the chances of forming a whole DNA molecule by random combinations are small. The early form of life would have reproduced itself.
The quantum uncertainty principle and the random thermal motions of the atoms would mean that there were a certain number of errors in the reproduction. Most of these errors would have been fatal to the survival of the organism or its ability to reproduce. Such errors would not be passed on to future generations but would die out. Very few errors would be beneficial, by pure chance. The organisms with the beneficial errors would be more likely to survive and reproduce. Thus, they would tend to replace the original organisms.
The development of the double helix structure of the DNA may have been a quantum jump in the early stages. This was probably such an advance that it completely replaced any earlier form of life, whatever that may have been. As evolution progressed, DNA would have led to the development of the central nervous system. Creatures that correctly
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recognized the implications of the data gathered by their sense organs would be more likely to survive and reproduce.
The human race has carried this to another stage. We are very similar to higher apes, both in our body and in our DNA; but a slight variation in our DNA has enabled us to develop language. This has meant that we can hand down information and accumulated experience from generation to generation, in spoken and eventually in written form. The effect has been a dramatic speed-up of evolution. Previously, the results of experience could be handed down only by the slow process of encoding them into DNA through random errors in reproduction. It took more than three billion years to evolve up to the human race. But in the course of the last ten thousand years, we have developed written language This has enabled us to progress from cave dwellers to the point where we can ask about the ultimate theory of the universe.
Stephen Hawking
FYI
1.the quantum uncertainty principle − Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that one can’t measure simultaneously both the position and the velocity of a particle. The more accurately we measure the one, the less accurately we measure the other. This uncertainty is not very important at the present time, where things are far apart, so that a small uncertainty in position does not make much difference. But in the very early universe, everything was very close together, so there was quite a lot of uncertainty.
2.a quantum jump – a great change or advance
3.an evolution is a process of gradual change that takes place over many generations, during which animals, plants, insects, etc, slowly change some of their physical characteristics.
Vocabulary Notes
1.random – arbitrary – unplanned – chaotic
2.an error – a mistake
3.beneficial – useful – with a plus sign
4.tend to V – if something tends to happen, it happens.
5.an advance – progress
6.whatever – no matter what – any
7.an implication – a consequence – an effect
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8.to be similar to – to be like
9.to enable – to allow
10.previously – before
11.a cave-dweller – someone who lives in a cave
12.simultaneously – at the same time
13.to be apart – when things are apart, there is a distance between
them
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. Summarize the passage by answering the questions.
1.How did a very primitive form of life arise according to Darwin?
2.What was a very primitive form of life like?
3.Why wasn’t it DNA?
4.What caused errors in the reproduction?
5.What creatures would be more likely to survive and reproduce?
6.Are the DNA of a higher ape and that of a human being similar?
7.What did developing a language mean for humans?
II. Write out the statements which you find doubtful, if any. III. Put in the prepositions.
1.It is the best I can do … the moment.
2.My answer … this question is based … Darwin’s idea … natural selection.
3.The chances … forming a DNA molecule … random combinations
…atoms are very small.
4.There were a certain number … errors … the reproduction.
5.Very few errors would be beneficial, …pure chance.
6.The development …the double helix structure … the DNA may have been a quantum jump … the early stages.
7.DNA would have led … the development … the central nervous system.
8.Humans are very similar … higher apes: both … their body and … their DNA.
9.Humans can hand down information and accumulated experience
…generation … generation.
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IV. Give words close in meaning. |
|
1. because |
7. random |
2. original |
8. a mistake |
3. therefore |
9. a progress |
4. a set of |
10. to be like |
5. to lead to |
11. at the same time |
6. finally |
|
V. Formulate your arguments in favor or against Darwin’s idea. Use: I think (consider, believe, suppose, feel) that …; I don’t agree
that …..; I doubt that …; It’s incredible that …; It is disputable that … ; It’s unbelievable that ...; by pure chance
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in pairs)
Prefix a noun with the proper Adj. Put Adj. between an article and a noun. Follow the passage. Model: a fatal mistake
1. natural |
a the organism |
2. primitive |
b a form of life |
3. large |
c the uncertainty principle |
4. random |
d selection |
5. quantum |
e an error |
6. certain |
f chance |
7. future |
g combinations |
8. pure |
h a number of errors |
9. original |
i the structure |
10. double helix |
j a molecule |
11. fatal |
k a generation |
Exercise 2 (do it yourself) What do you think?
Study grammar point V and change the statements using may or might + have V3.
Remember: might is less sure than may.
1. Some very primitive form of life arose spontaneously on earth from chance combinations of atoms.
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2.This early form of life was probably a large molecule.
3.There were a certain number of errors in the reproduction.
4.Such errors died out.
5.The development of the double structure of the DNA was probably such an advance that it completely replaced any earlier form of life.
Exercise 3 (do it yourself) What do you think?
Study grammar point IV and change the sentences using
S + is likely + have V3 S + is unlikely + have V3
Model: It was probably not DNA.
It is unlikely to have been DNA.
1.There were a certain number of errors in the reproduction.
2.Most of these errors were fatal to the survival of the organism.
3.Such errors were not passed on to future generations.
4.Such errors died out.
5.A very few errors were beneficial.
6.The organisms with these beneficial errors replaced the original, unimproved ones.
7.The development of DNA was one such improvement in the early stages.
8.That was probably such an advance that it completely replaced any earlier form of life.
9.Evolution led to the development of the nervous system.
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Part II. SCIENCE
UNIT I
THE POWERS OF THE HUMAN MIND
“It is surely better to hope than to despair of the human mind.”
Stephen Hawking
PRE-READING TASK Study some grammar points. I. One is a personal pronoun and can be used as the subject of a sentence = You. It is a formal subject. One is not translated.
Study the sentences.
1.One needn’t lose hope.
2.One can draw a graph showing the amount of light elements vertically and the amount of normal matter in the universe along the horizontal axis.
II. Modal verbs show the attitude of the speaker towards the idea he expresses.
May, might, can, could = perhaps
Might is more unsure than may. Could is more unsure than can Must is the most sure of all = highly probable.
Study the sentences.
1.There might be a connection between black holes and thermodynamics.
2.Imaginary time may sound like something out of science
fiction, but it is a well-defined mathematical concept.
3.There can be baby universes that contain only a few particles.
4.The universe must contain enough dark matter to bring the density up to the critical value.
III. Should
Should is not as strong as must.
Study the sentences.
1.We must find out what happens at these energies.
2.The theory predicted that the average density of galaxies should be constant both in space and time.
3.There might be some reason that the universe should have precisely the critical density.
IV. We use be (am / is / are / was / were) + to V to say that something is planned to happen, that it will definitely happen.
Study the sentences.
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1.A quantum theory of gravity is essential if we are to describe the early universe.
2.If one is to obtain a fully unified theory, one is to include gravity.
V. We use to V (in order to V) to talk about the purpose of doing something. (why someone does something).
Study the sentences.
1.To prove singularities we have developed some techniques.
2.In order to formulate this idea Hawking introduces the concept of imaginary time, which I find a little hard to follow.
VI. N + to V; N + to be V3
An infinitive after a noun cha-
racterizes it and expresses an action which must be done or could be done in the future.
Study the sentences.
1.The universe is a puzzle to be guessed.
2.We spent billions of pounds to build giant machines to accelerate particles to high energies.
VII. We use for + N + to V to talk about the purpose of doing something.
Study the sentences.
1. For the universe to continue to expand and new matter to be created, the steady state model required a modification of general relativity.
2.Within the black hole the speed of the particle cannot be exactly defined. It is therefore possible for the speed of the particle to be greater than the speed of light.
3.A tenth of the critical density would be enough matter for galaxies and stars to form.
Give Russian correspondence: at least (as a minimum), in an arbitrary manner, since then, so (thus, therefore), a great deal (a lot, very much), particularly (especially), an approach (a way of studying), within (in), the only way (the single way), ultimate (complete), according to, a set of (a range of; a number of)
”Life is a great mystery”
The Bible
“One of the fascinating things about the physical world is that its fundamental structure seems always to be expressed in beautiful mathematics. To me it suggests that there is a Mind behind the structure of the world, and that our minds are somehow attuned to that Mind.”
John Polkinghorne
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THE UNIVERSE IS GOVERNED BY PRECISE
MATHEMATICAL LAWS
Study the passage. Mind the underlined grammar points.
I don’t agree with the view that the universe is a mystery, something that one can have intuition about but never fully analyze or comprehend. The scientific revolution started almost four hundred years ago by Galileo and was carried on by Newton. They showed that at least some areas of the universe do not behave in an arbitrary manner but are governed by precise mathematical laws. Over the years since then, we have extended the work of Galileo and Newton to almost every area of the universe.
We now have mathematical laws that govern everything we normally experience. We spent billions of pounds to build giant machines to accelerate particles to such high energies that we don’t yet know what will happen when they collide. These very high particle energies don’t occur in normal situations on the earth, so it might seem academic and unnecessary to spend large sums on studying them. But they occurred in the early universe, so we must find out what happens at these energies if we are to understand how we and the universe began.
There is a great deal that we don’t know or understand about the universe. But the remarkable progress we have made, particularly in the last hundred years, should encourage us to believe that a complete understanding may be within our powers. We may break through to a complete theory of the universe. I believe that the universe is governed by an order that we can perceive partially now and that we may understand fully in the not-too-distant future.
The approach, in which one regards a theory as a model, is the only way to understand the universe, at least for a theoretical physicist. I hope that we will find a consistent model that describes everything in the universe. If we do that it will be a real triumph for a human race. This hope may be just a mirage; there may be no ultimate theory, and even if there is, we may not find it. But it is surely better to hope than to despair of the human mind.
It is now generally accepted that the universe evolves according to well-defined laws. And even if there is only one unique set of possible laws, it is only a set of equations. What is it that breathes fire into the equations and makes a universe for them to govern?
Stephen Hawking
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FYI
Your intuition is an unexplained feeling within you that something is true or exists when you have no evidence of it.
Vocabulary Notes
1.to comprehend – to understand
2.to carry on – to continue
3.arbitrary – random – approximate
4.to occur – to take place
5.academic (here) is used to indicate that something is theoretical and can have no real effect on what is happening
6.remarkable – significant – important
7.to encourage – to give somebody confidence, assurance
8.to perceive – to come to a particular opinion by studying and observing
9.to regard – to consider
10.a consistent theory is a theory all parts of which fit together
11.to despair – to lose hope
12.It is now generally accepted – It is now generally believed
13.to breathe fire into something – to animate something
POST-READING TASK
(To be done at home in writing)
I. Write a paragraph covering the questions:
1.Galileo’s contribution to science.
2.Newton’s contribution to science.
II. Put in the prepositions.
1.I don’t agree ……. the view that the universe is a mystery.
2.…. the years since then, we have extended the work of Galileo and
Newton … almost every area of the universe.
3.It might seem academic and unnecessary to spend large sums … studying very high particle energies.
4.What happens … these energies?
5 A complete understanding may be … our powers.
6.We may break through … a complete understanding of the universe.
7.The universe is governed … an order.
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8.The universe evolves ……. well-defined laws.
9.What is it that breathes fire … the equations?
III. Give words close in meaning. |
|
1. an opinion |
7. a lot |
2. to understand |
8. a way of studying |
3. to begin |
9. to consider |
4. to continue |
10. complete |
5. accurate |
11. a set of |
6. to take place |
|
CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise 1 (in groups)
Checking up understanding
1.What phenomena do we call mysterious?
2.Why does Stephen Hawking not agree with the view that the universe is a mystery?
3.What did Galileo and Newton show?
4.What is the stateof- the art of modern science?
5.What do scientists build giant accelerators for?
6.What approach is the only way to understand the universe?
7.What model do scientists attempt to find?
8.Can we perceive the order the universe is governed by?
9.How do scientists express laws?
Exercise 2 (do it yourself)
Make the sentences passive.
1.The scientific revolution which Galileo started (carry on) by New-
ton.
2.The universe (govern) by precise mathematical laws.
3.The universe (govern) by an order.
4.A consistent theory (regard) as a mathematical model that describes everything in the universe.
5.Now it (accept) that the universe evolves according to well-defined
laws.
Exercise 3 (do it yourself)
Use may or might + V to show your attitude to the below facts.
1.A complete understanding of the universe is within our powers.
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